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THE 
TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

A HAND BOOK FOR TRACK FOREMEN, 
SUPERVISORS AND ENGINEERS 

1917 EDITION 



REVISED AND ENLARGED 
BY 



RICHARD T. DANA and A. F. TRIMBLE 



Mem. Am. Soc. C. E. 
Mem. Am. Soc. E. C, 
Mem. A. I. M. E. 



Mem. Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. 
Mem. Eng. Soc. N. E. Penna. 



AFTER THE ORIGINAL 
BY 

J. KINDELAN 

of the ^. M. & St. P. Ry. 
AS REVISED BY 

F. A. SMITH 

F. R. COATES 

and 

JERRY SULLIVAN 

ILLUSTRATED 




NEW YORK 
1917 



% 






Copyright, 1917 

By Clark Book Co., Inc. 

New York 




©CU457966 ' * 
7u. /. 



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PREFACE 



The object of this book is to help the MAN ON 
THE TRACK by giving him in the most convenient 
form the practical results of observation and study 
of track work on the railroads of the United States 
for the last twenty years, in addition to the notes that 
were published in 1894 by the late J. Kindelan. 

The original book has been entirely rewritten and 
brought up to date, the illustrations redrawn and a 
great many new ones made. A very large quantity 
of brand new material has been added from the ex- 
perience of the authors and from the files of the tech- 
nical journals, which have been carefully searched 
for the purpose. 

We have kept constantly in mind the following 
points that are neeessarj^ in a practical book of this 
kind, namely:- — 

(1) It must cover the principal field of a track- 
man's work. 

(2) It must not waste space by going outside of 
that field. 

(3) It must avoid elaborate theories, which he has 
not the time to investigate. 

(4) Its language must be plain enough to be read- 
ily understood. 

(5) It must be small enough to be carried in his 
pocket. 

(6) Its price must be within his means. 

In writing this volume our final aim has been to 
enable each man who uses it to become of the greatest 
possible value to the company that employs him. 
Richard T. Dana and A. F. Trimble. 

New York, November, 1916. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I Construction 1-42 

II Spiking and Gaging 43-66 

III General Spring Work 67-74 

IV Drainage 75-85 

V Summer Track Work 86-115 

VI Cutting Weeds 116-119 

VII Ballasting 120-141 

VIII Renewal of Rails 142-156 

IX Effects of the Wave Motion of Rail on 

Track Rail Movements 157-179 

X General Fall Track Work 180^184 

XI Building Fences 185-208 

XII General Winter Work 209-216 

XIII Bucking Snow 217-220 

XIV Laying Out Curves 221-225 

XV Elevation of Curves 226-237 

XVI Lining Curves 238-241 

XVII Special Conditions on Mountain Roads . 242-254 

XVIII Frogs and Switches 255-288 

XIX Use and Care of Track Tools .... 289-314 

XX Tie Plates 315-323 

XXI Wrecking 324-329 

XXII General Instructions 330-363 

XXIII Practical Hints for Trackmen .... 364-380 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



CONSTRUCTION 

Requirements of new track. A good railroad 
should be complete in all respects. In its construction 
nothing should be omitted that may contribute to- 
wards making it safe and economical for operation. 
It should be full-bolted, spiked, well ballasted, sur- 
faced, lined, and gaged. A poor track bears about the 
same relation to a railroad that a shanty does to a 
house, and trackmen who are in the habit of doing 
poor work, with means at hand to do better work, 
never learn how to do good work. 

Track laying. The best dirt ballasted track can be 
made by bedding the ties to a level surface across 
their tops before putting on the rails. To do this 
engineers must first set grade stakes, which are usu- 
ally placed 100 ft. apart. For very accurate work 
they may be set every 25 ft. if the engineers have time, 
which seldom happens. The ties can then be set be- 
tween the 25 ft. stakes with strings. 

Track laying machines. These have been used to 
a considerable extent in building new roads and are 
elsewhere quite fully described in this volume with 
cost data of their operation. The amount of track 
laid each day must always be limited to what can be 
bolted and spiked safe for trains between the forward 
moves of the machine. The secret of success in lay- 
ing track in this manner, just as in all cases involving 
large operations, lies in the proper preparation and 

1 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



the accurate organization of the entire work. In the 
United States to-day, the vast bulk of track work con- 
sists of re-laying under conditions that are not suitable 
for track machine work. 

Tools and material for track laying*. The follow- 
ing is a list of tools ordinarily required on construc- 
tion work for track laying and ballasting where 100 
men are employed : 



Hand Cars 2 

Push Cars 2 

Track Shovels (#1 Flat) .100 

Shovels, Round Pointed. 24 

" Long Handled . . 6 

Picks 50 

Lining Bars 12 

Claw Bars 12 

Tamping Bars 12 

Nipping Bars 12 

Cold Chisels 24 

Rail Punches 6 

Chopping Axes 6 

Hand Axes 6 

Adze Handles 24 

Axe " 6 

Spike Maul Handles 36 

Red Flags 12 

Sledges, 16 pound each.. 2 
12 " " .. 2 

Grind Stone 1 

Track Wrenches 24 

Rail Tongs 12 

Rail Forks 6 

Expansion Shims 200 

Switch Locks 6 

Rail Drills 2 

Torpedoes, dozens 4 

Spike Mauls 36 

Bush Scythes and Snaths, 

each 6 

Hand Saws 6 

Adzes 12 

Track Gages 12 

Spirit Levels 4 



Tape Lines 4 

Claw Hammers 2 

Monkey Wrenches 18"... 2 

" " 12"... 2 

Lanterns, Red 6 

White 6 

Water Pails 6 

Tin Dippers 12 

Oil Cans 2 

Oilers 2 

Gallons of Oil 2 

Nails, each of lOd, 20d, 

40d, 60d Keg 

Pick Handles 24 

Track Jacks #1 4 

#6 2 

Rail Benders 2 

Covered Water Barrels . . 2 

Chalk Lines 2 

Files 6 

Crosscut Saws 2 

Post-hole Diggers 2 

114-inch rope 300 feet 

Tie Poles, 30 feet long . . 2 

Tie Gages 4 

Set Double Harness 1 

Set Single Harness 1 

Set of Double and Sin- 
gle Trees, each 1 

Wagon 1 

Scrapers 2 

Horses or Mules 2 

Tool Boxes 2 

Wheelbarrows 12 

Trackbarrows 6 



CONSTRUCTION 3 

The above list of tools will do to supply an average 
gang of 100 men employed on tracklaying and ballast- 
ing with a surplus to equip extra men if required, or 
replace tools out of repair or broken, until supplies or- 
dered can be secured. 

The accommodations for tracklaying should be 
about as follows : 

One supply and office car. 

One kitchen car. 

Two dining cars. 

Ten sleeping cars. 

Where tracklaying is done at a long distance from 
the base of supplies a blacksmith with forge and tools 
should accompany the outfit. 

Blacksmith shop outfit. Tools necessary for a 
blacksmith shop suitable for drill and general repair 
work are given in Dana's "Handbook of Construc- 
tion Plant, ' ' as follows : 

1 anvil, 130 lbs $13.00 

2 augers, ship, 1%, $1, 1-1", $1.20 2.20 

2 bevels, universal 2.50 

1 brace and 13 auger bits, % to 1", in roll 5.50 

1 caliper, micrometer 6.00 

4 calipers, spring, at $1 4.00 

6 chisels cold, 12 lbs. at 50(^ 6.00 

4 diisels, hot, 8 lbs. at 50^ 4.00 

1 cutter for pipe up to 3" 4.80 

1 drill, stationary, hand power, i^ to 1^/4 hole, weighs 

170 lbs 22.00 

1 drill, breast 3.00 

6 drill dollies 10.00 

24 files, assorted, at $8 per doz 16.00 

24 files, flat, at $8 per dozen 16.00 

12 files, small taper .60 

24 files, triangular, at $7 per dozen 14.00 

1 grindstone, foot power, 3" x 12'' wheel 4.00 

1 gauge, marking 2.00 

4 heading tools, 1% lbs. each 3.00 

3 hammers, blacksmith 2.70 

3 hammers, set 1.50 

4 hardies at 50^ lb 2.00 



4 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

2 pails at 70^ $ 1.40 

6 rasps, at $12 per doz 6.00 

1 rule, 6 ft. folding 40 

1 saw, crosscut, hand, 20" 1.35 

1 saw set .70 

2 saws, hack, at $1 2.00 

4 shanks 2.00 

1 sledge, double face, 5 lbs 1.50 

2 sledges, double face, 7 lbs. each 4.20 

1 sledge, cross pein, 5 lbs 1.50 

2 sledges, cross pein, 4 lbs. each 2.80 

2 squares at $9 18.00 

1 stock and 8 dies for %" to 2" pipe 17.50 

8 swedges, bottom, 1 lb. each 2.00 

8 swedges, top, 1 lb. each 2.00 

9 tongs, assorted 12.00 

1 vise, blacksmith's leg, O^^" 20.00 

1 vise, hinged, for pipe, %" to 3" 3.15 

$243.30 

Tie bedding. This work consists in placing a 
straight edge in a level position over the tops of loose 
ties lying on the sub-grade, and bringing up each tie 
to a uniform surface under the straight edge, just as 
it should be in track under rails. Thin ties should 
have ballast thrown under them and be settled to the 
correct level. The bed under thick ties should be 
dug out and the dirt removed sufficiently to bring 
the tie down to the level of the other ties. One 
straight edge should be provided for every two men 
of the tie bedding gang. With dirt from the em- 
bankment, the thick ties should always be bedded be- 
fore laying the rails, because the grade is seldom a 
smooth surface to receive the ties; the ties, no matter 
how well selected, vary in thickness, and it is well 
known that the rails laid on loose ties and uneven 
grade will be kinked and surface bent by trains run- 
ning over the track before it is surfaced up smooth 
and level. Another good point in favor of tie bed- 
ding is that the rails can be laid faster than over 



CONSTRUCTION 5 

loose ties, and the spiking can be better done with 
less labor. 

Engineers should call the attention of the con- 
tractor to inequalities or poor surface of grade. It 
is much easier and cheaper to make a good grade 
with teams and scrapers than with shovels. 

The general practice now is to follow up with bal- 
lasting practically as fast as the rails are laid and 
with hopper and ballast cars that enable the distri- 
bution of the material used in ballasting just as it is 
needed. Tie bedding is done sparingly and only to 
the extent of getting the track laid so that it will 
carry a work train for a trip or two, "to drag the 
track" full of ballast or perhaps get a few cars of 
steel ahead for the rail laying gang. 

Track laying-. There should be a good foreman 
in charge of the track laying gang and he should 
keep general oversight of the work and keep the men 
properly proportioned to the work of distributing 
ties, laying rail, and spiking and gaging. For each 
of these three classes of work an assistant foreman 
should be employed who will be in direct charge and 
hurry the work along. The general foreman should 
see that the work is properly done, and help out the 
sub gang that he sees is getting behind, making such 
change in the proportion of men alloted to each as he 
sees is for the best to keep the work in the different 
lines advancing continuously and at the same rate 
of speed. If the laborers employed are foreigners it 
is well to have assistant foremen who can speak their 
language. The general foreman, while he may be 
competent, cannot look after all the details and keep 
a large gang of men working to advantage. It is 
money well spent to have sufficient assistant foremen, 
who should be held responsible for having all neces- 
sary tools at hand when wanted and for carrying on 
the work assigned. 



6 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

Locating joint ties. Two men should be delegated 
to carry a measuring pole of the correct length of a 
rail for locating the joint ties ahead of the rails. 
These men should space the ties on each side of the 
joint wherever necessary; they should also adze 
twisted ties and bed down those that are too high. 
The joint ties should not be located very far ahead 
of the rail, because there is likely to be variation in 
the distances, and the measurements taken with the 
pole should occasionally be corrected from the ends of 
the rails. The track laying is delayed and the ties 
are seldom so well spaced when the work is left to 
the spikers. 

Tie gage. The two men who look after the loca- 
tion of the joint ties can also mark the location of the 
base of the rail on each tie by means of the tie gage, 
which is a template or stick that should always be on 
hand for this purpose. Its use is explained more 
fully and an illustration of it given in Chapter V 
under ''Renewal of Ties." This marking of the 
position of the rails requires only very little time and 
should always be done, as it saves much valuable time 
for the spikers in getting the tie quickly adjusted to 
its proper position. 

Laying the rails. A construction foreman should 
see that no new rails are laid in track before all 
kinked and crooked places in the rails are straight- 
ened. It has been a common fault when in a hurry to 
spike down all rails just as they come, regardless of 
any kinks that may have been put in them while in 
transit or in unloading them from cars. Many light- 
weight rails are irreparably damaged in this way, 
and after such rails are put in a track they are sel- 
dom, if ever, made perfect again, as very few sec- 
tion foremen have the necessary amount of help or 
spare time to do what can be done in the very short 
time before the rails are laid. The foreman should 



CONSTRUCTION 7 

see that the rails are so laid that no joint will come 
within ten feet of the end of any bridge or road cross- 
ing where this can be avoided. For this purpose it 
is the practice of some roads now to furnish double 
length rails, i.e., 60 ft. or 66 ft. long, which are in most 
cases sufficient to clear the travelled road with a 
single length and thus eliminate an endless amount of 
trouble on maintenance. It is also a good plan to 
lay long rails at station platforms where it is difficult 
to resurface joints on account of the track being filled 
in to the top of the rails or planked over as at road 
crossings ; and on bridges, in addition to getting easier 
riding qualities, there is a great amount of shock saved 
to the bridge structure by the elimination of half of 
the joints. When placing the order for new rails 
there is no particular difficulty in figuring out how 
many long rails are necessary to meet these condi- 
tions. 

Expansion and contraction. When laying rails 
care should be taken to provide the proper spaces at 
the joints for expansion. If they are laid with too 
close joints in cold weather they expand and close up 
all the openings as the weather becomes warmer until 
finally, when there is no further room for expansion 
as the heat increases, the track becomes kinked out of 
line or "buckled." This is an extreme condition 
and is disastrous when it occurs ahead of a train, as 
sometimes happens, causing a derailment. 

The effect of expansion of the rails is most notice- 
able on a line of track that is only partially ballasted 
and filled between the ties, or where track has been 
laid down without any particular ballast. This effect 
may exist only to the extent of making each indi- 
vidual rail-length of track "wavy," and slight kinks 
can be noticed at the joints, but it is something 
to be guarded against. When the rails are crowded 
together tightly so that there is no room for ex- 



8 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

pansion in forty or fifty rail lengths, it is time for 
the section foreman to take it in hand. He should 
either bump the rails back if there is opening to do 
so, or cut a few inches from a rail in the center of the 
tight track and bump the adjoining rails to divide 
up the opening so obtained throughout a number of 
rail lengths either way. In cutting a rail for this 
purpose it is best to cut from the end an amount equal 
to the distance between the first and second bolt holes, 
or, in other words, have it so that the second bolt hole 
will move up to take the place of the one cut off. 

"Contraction" is a shrinking or shortening of 
the rails, and is caused by cold weather. The con- 
traction of the rails increases with the severity of the 
cold, and by this process the openings in the joints 
between the rails are enlarged. 

Sometimes in the winter the contraction is so 
great that where the rails were not properly laid the 
track is torn apart, joint splices are broken, and open- 
ings between the rails are so much increased as to 
render the track extremely dangerous for trains un- 
less discovered in time and repaired. 

Too much space at the joints also afi'ects the wear- 
ing qualities of the rails, the openings at the joints be- 
ing so large that the wheels batter their ends, and 
they wear out and have to be taken out of service 
much sooner than would be the case with rails of the 
same quality if laid with the proper spacing. 

The table to be used for securing the proper space 
for expansion is given in Chapter VIII under "Al- 
lowance for Expansion." 

Expansion shims should be made of narrow, flat 
iron or steel, and bent so that one end will rest on 
top of the rail when in place. The shim can thus be 
easily removed and used again after a piece of track 
is laid, and all the bolts then tightened up on the 
joint fastenings. 



CONSTRUCTION 9 

A ten-penny common steel nail, if bent at right 
angles, makes a cheap and handy expansion shim 
when no others are provided. It may be used at al- 
most any temperature above the freezing point, by re- 
versing the end and flattening the head of the nail. 
Expansion shims should not be allowed to remain be- 
tween the ends of the rails after a piece of track has 
been laid and the joint fastenings made secure. 

When laying old rails make the same allowance for 
expansion as when laying new ones. 

Creeping rail. Aside from the movement of the 
rail due to expansion and contraction above referred 
to, it is very likely to be moved by the wave motion 
which exists when the wheel passing over a track 
comes in contact with the rail; the rails are shoved 
ahead, on double track with the current of traffic, and 
on single track usually in the direction of the heavier 
traffic, but if there is a heavy grade the track may 
move down grade with the direction of the lighter 
traffic. This force is often great enough to pull the 
slot spikes and move the joints ahead of the joint ties, 
and ties are slewed around and shoved ahead with 
such force as to churn up the ballast ahead of them. 
As a result, the rails are crowded ahead and the space 
allowed for expansion on account of temperature is 
all closed up perhaps pulling apart a joint just as 
would occur in case of contraction in severe winter 
weather when the proper spacing has not been made 
in laying the rails as above explained. 

To counteract this effect it is necessary to apply 
anti-rail-creepers or "rail anchors" as they are called. 
There are a number of good ones on the market today 
such as the P. & M., the Vaughan, the Dinklage Creep- 
check, etc., shown and described in Chapter IX. 

The number of rail anchors necessary is something 
that varies with the particular conditions. The dia- 
grams following show the manner in which they 



10 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

should be applied and the number used to resist the 
creeping. Where the tendency to creeping is light 
two per rail may answer the purpose, four where 
medium, and six per rail where heavy creeping is en- 
countered. 

Unloading and loading rails. To avoid damage to 
rails by dropping them on hard ground or ballast it 
is best to unload them by derrick or other mechanical 
means. The American Rail Loader, shown in Fig. 
2, is an excellent machine for this work. It can be 
run on its own wheels over a string of flat cars and 
the rails picked up by means of a clamp which is 
readily fastened to the rail near the center, the opera- 
tion being by a long air cylinder supplied with com- 
pressed air from the train line, the operator simply 
turning a valve to raise or lower his load as desired. 
Only a small force of men is employed when handling 
rails in this way, one to operate the machine and six 
others, three in a car to get the rails ready and ad- 
just the clamp, and three on the ground to move the 
boom, land the rail and remove the clamp. To handle 
rails in this way requires, of course, a work train or 
engine to supply air. The boom is so designed that 
when the flat car upon which it is located is coupled to 
a gondola car the clamp will come right for the center 
of the car and rails can be loaded or unloaded as 
readily from this class of car as from a flat car. In 
loading up flat cars, the rails can be piled up as high 
as desired and the car loaded to its capacity, which is 
hardly possible, or at least not a safe practice, when 
the loading is done by hand. In loading or unload- 
ing a car an average of a rail per minute can be 
maintained, and if flat cars are being unloaded the 
machine can be moved forward by the men and placed 
on the car just emptied ; if gondola cars are used, the 
one loaded or unloaded must be switched out and re- 
placed by another. 




For Light Creeping Tendency. Two Per Rail. 

nnnnnn.nnnnnnnnn.nnnn.nnn, 



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u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u 

Medium Creeping Tendency. Four Per Rail. 



nnnnnnnn nnnnnnnnnnnn 




u u u u u u u u 

Heavy Creeping Tendency. Six Per Rail. 

nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn 






RE 



OF CRIIIPIMS 



U U U U"U u u u u u u u u u u u u u u 

SINGLE Track -Creeping Both Directions. Six Per Rail 
Fig. 1. Proper Location for Anti-Creepers 



11 



12 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



Short rails for curves. The usual practice when 
an order is given by a railroad company to furnish a 
certain tonnage of rail is to specify the length of rails 
desired, 30 ft. or 33 ft. as the case may be, and to 
accept up to ten per cent of the tonnage in short rails, 
down to 25 ft. lengths, diminishing by one foot succes- 
sively. Some of these short rails are used on the in- 




American 



Loader 



side rail of curves in order to keep the joints broken 
with the other rails on the outside line. What extra 
ones are not required for this work should be kept to- 
gether and used up on straight track, breaking joints 
to the best advantage. 

When laid in a sag. When a piece of track is laid 
in a sag which it is intended soon to raise to grade, 
the rails should be laid with open joints and the 



OONSTRUCTION 13 

splices loosely bolted, otherwise, when brought to 
grade the joints will become too tight, since a sagging 
track is longer than one which is laid accurately to 
grade. 

Change of line toward center of curve. In cases 
where the general change of line is made by moving a 
curved track inward several feet, dig out the material 
which is used for filling between the ties for the full 
distance covered by the change in line, so that the 
ties will not crowd against each other or injure the 
surface by rising up. Before commencing to line, 
cut the track loose at the middle of the curve by re- 
moving the joint fastenings at one joint on each line 
of rails as nearly opposite as can be selected, and 
loosen the spikes from at least one line of rails between 
the joints thus cut in order to permit the two broken 
pieces of track to move independently of each other. 
Start lining gangs at one or both ends of the curve 
and work towards the middle, moving the track 
towards the new line 12 to 20 inches, or as far as it 
can be pulled conveniently with one lining, without 
kinking the rails or splices. Continue thus until the 
opening in the middle of the curve is reached. Then 
go back and commence again as near the end of the 
curve as may be necessary, and work towards the 
middle as before. Repeat this process until the inside 
rail of the track has been moved beyond the cen- 
ter stakes for the new line, bringing in both ends of 
the curve alike. Then, while part of the men are 
spacing and squaring the ties, throwing in surfacing 
material, etc., go over the ground with a small gang 
and line the track to the center stakes. Do not cut 
the rails to fill up the opening at the middle of the 
curve until all the lining of the track is finished; 
otherwise the rails may not fit after all the lining is 
completed. Lining from the ends of the curve to- 
ward the middle always forces the track to move 



14 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

forward toward the opening when throwing track in- 
ward. By moving the track a little past the center 
stakes with the first lining, if the curve is being moved 
in, and then throwing it outward to its place when 
finishing the work, buckling or jamming joints to- 
gether is prevented and the track is made less diffi- 
cult to handle. The latter operation stretches the 
track, and opens up joints that might otherwise have 
proved too tight for conveniently maintaining a good 
line in the future. If the section of track to be 
thrown is long, and particularly if of heavy construc- 
tion, it may be necessary to cut the track at more than 
one place. 

When the change of line is so great that the new 
line is some distance clear of the old track, it is some- 
times a better policy to lay a new section of track 
throughout than to try to move the old piece of 
track to place with lining bars. 

Making connections. When laying rails on either 
main or side tracks never make a connection with a 
piece of rail shorter than ten feet. When you see 
that only three or four feet of rail are necessary to 
connect the ends of a piece of track, add the three or 
four feet to the length of the rail immediately adjoin- 
ing the space, cut two pieces of rail half the length of 
the total number of feet, and put these into the track 
to make connections. A piece of rail less than ten 
feet in length is of greatest value to the railroad com- 
pany when returned to the rolling mill. Except in 
cases where it is absolutely necessary to use short 
pieces of rail, as at the ends of frogs in round house 
tracks, they should be avoided. Modern round house 
design nowadays generally requires the elimination 
of frogs between the turntable and house. A track 
foreman can generally avoid making a short con- 
nection, especially when laying old rails, by cutting 
lensrths of rail from 26 ft. to 33 ft. which are battered 



CONSTRUCTION 15 

on the ends but otherwise in good condition. When 
rails of different length are at hand a great deal can 
be accomplished by doing a little figuring to make 
such a combination of length of rails that an opening 
can be closed without cutting at all. 

■Lining new track. When a new road is first laid 
out the engineers set stakes where the center of the 
track should be. These are generally 100 feet apart, 
and a tack is driven in the top of each stake to show 
the correct center of the track. The man whose 
business it is to line the rails behind the tracklayers 
always carries with him a small light wooden gage on 
which the center is marked. The manner of lining 
new track is as follows: The trackliner places his 
gage on top of the rails across the track over one of 
the center stakes. His men then lift the track to 
one side until the center mark on the gage is directly 
over the tack in the top of the center stake between 
the rails. This part of the track is then allowed to 
remain in that position and should not be moved 
again. After the trackliner has put the rails in posi- 
tion at two or three center stakes, he proceeds with 
his men to put the rails between these points in a true 
line with them, which completes the work. Any care- 
lessness on the part of the trackliner in the matter of 
putting the rails in their proper place at the center 
stakes is apt to cause trouble when the track has been 
surfaced, as it is often difficult for the trackman in 
charge of a section to get a perfect line on his track 
at places where the first trackliner left swings in it, 
because often many of the center stakes are lost or 
moved out of position during the work of tracklaying. 

The steel car should be light, strong and compact, 
and made of the best material, so that it can carry a 
heavy load and at the same time be easily handled by 
the crew working it. The wheels' tread should be at 
least eight inches wide, so that the car can pass over 



16 THE TEACKMAN'S HELPER 

loose and unevenly gaged track without leaving the 
rails. A car load of rails off the track may cause con- 
siderable delay. 

The gage used to hold the rails in place ahead of 
the steel car should be made of one solid piece of iron 
with a flange to come down on both sides of the ball 
of each rail. This kind of gage serves the double 
purpose of gaging the track and of holding the loose 
rails in place until the car has passed over them. 

When spiking new track the foreman should see 
that the gage is not placed too far away from the 
joint when the spikes are being driven; otherwise, if 
the loose end of the rail is bowed in or out, the gage 
will be wrong. 

Forwarding material. In constructing a new line 
the material used must necessarily be hauled out to 
the point of construction. The center of activities is 
at the end of the completed track, hence it is of the 
utmost importance that only what is required to keep 
the work in progress continuously be forwarded. To 
avoid accumulation and all interference, this distribu- 
tion should be in charge of a competent man who will 
keep in close touch with the general foreman and find 
out just what is desired from day to day and have it 
loaded up at the material yard, which is the center of 
distribution; or, if the material be on cars, shall 
see that the proper cars go forward switched out in 
the proper order. If the track laying gang is con- 
tinuously using the stub end of the track as fast as 
it is laid during the day for the operation of the 
steel car, and it is not convenient to distribute ties 
ahead by means of teams without interfering with 
the work of tracklaying, it may be necessary to have 
the distribution of ties made at night. 

Ballast gang. This should follow up the track- 
layers as closely as can be arranged so that there will 
be no interference with the distribution of material 



OONSTHUCTION 17 

either for the track layers or with the unloading of 
ballast. A gang of forty men should keep this work 
advancing properly and be able to furnish the help 
required to distribute the ballast if furnished in self- 
clearing cars. The composition of this gang will be 
approximately the same as the one referred to in detail 
in Chapter VII on ' ' Ballasting. ' ' 
Force required for track laying. 

1 Foreman 

2 Assistant Foremen 

2 to 4 Tie Spacers — Space ties ahead of new rails 

2 Tie Gagers — Mark location of rails on ties before 
rails are laid and assist tie spacers in locating 
joints, ties, etc 

1 Gageman — Handles gage for spiking track to gage 

ahead of steel car 

4 Spikers (head) — Spike every third or fourth tie 
ahead of steel car 

2 Tie Nippers ( liead) — Hold up ties for head spikers . . 
8 to 12 Tongmen — Unload rails from steel car and place in 

position for spikers 

1 Shimman — Carries box of assorted shims and places 

proper shim for expansion 

8 Bolters — Apply joint fastenings 

8 to 16 Spikers (back) — Spike every tie not finished by 

head spikers 

4 to 8 Tie Nippers^ — Hold up ties for back spikers 

6 Material and Toolmen — Distribute joint fastenings, 
spikes and bolts, and look after tools 

2 Water Carriers — ^Supply force with drinking water . . 

5 1 to 69 Men in entire gang. 

Note: — ^Above does not include force required for distribu- 
tion of ties. 

A machine for handling rail and track material. 

The Brown Rail Loader is mounted on a covered 34-ft. 
fiat car of 60,000 lbs. capacity. It consists of a 22-ft. 
demountable boom attached to a low mast and guyed 
to an adjustable ''A" frame on each end of the car. 
The hoisting cables run along the booms, through 
the masts, around drums, and are then attached to 



18 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

the rods of the pistons in the compressed air hoisting 
cylinders. These cylinders are placed longitudinally 
on the floor of the car and each is equipped with a 
three-way valve lever or chain control enabling the 
operator to occupy any position in the car while rais- 
ing or lowering loads. In order to draw air for the 
device from the '^ Train Line" without cutting out 
any of the cars in the train, two compressed air reser- 
voirs are provided under the car and connected with 
each cylinder. The housing between the boom masts 
has sufficient door and window openings and is 
made long enough to accommodate the booms so that 
when not in use they can be placed in the car and 
locked. 

The loader is built in two types: (A) 2,200 lbs. 
capacity with a compound lift of 12 ft. (B) 2,200 
lbs. capacity with a compound lift of 24 ft. and 4,500 
lbs. capacity with a straight lift of 12 ft. The change 
from 2,200 lbs. to 4,500 lbs. in type B is made by re- 
leasing the cables from the drums, a clamp of simple 
construction being the only attachment required. 

Some of the advantages claimed for this machine by 
the manufacturers are : (1) The material is handled 
without being damaged. (2) Danger of personal in- 
juries is greatly reduced. (3) A much smaller force 
of men is required for the work. (4) A considerable 
saving in time required to handle a given amount of 
material, which is of special importance in handling 
material on main tracks-, and (5) A great saving in 
cost of doing the work. 

In loading or unloading rail by hand a force of 
about 40 men with foreman and sub-foreman is re- 
quired. The wages of such a gang will amount to ap- 
proximately $85 per day of 10 hours. If the work is 
done with a Brown Rail Loader and is carried on at 
the same time on the two cars coupled to it, the 
makers claim that the force required will consist of 



CONSTRUCTION 19 

two men on each car for swinging the rails into place 
and straight with the car and for loosening or attach- 
ing the cable clamps to the rails, two men on the 
ground opposite each car for attaching the cable 
clamps to the rails and swinging the rails parallel to 
the car, or for swinging the rails parallel to the track, 
properl}^ spacing them and loosening clamps if rail is 
being unloaded. An operator to manipulate the ma- 
chine and a foreman complete the force, which will 
cost about $22 per day of 10 hours. These figures 
show a saving of about $63 a day for labor resulting 
from the use of the machine. The amount actually 
saved will, of course, be less than indicated, as in- 
terest on the cost of the machine, maintenance, de- 
preciation, taxes, cost of oil, grease and waste, cost of 
compressing air, depreciation and maintenance of all 
compressed air equipment involved, oil, grease and 
waste for such equipment, and cost of handling the 
machine in the work train, and from one piece of work 
to another must be deducted from the $63 saved 
through reduced labor cost. 

The rate of speed at which the machine may be 
operated is claimed to be four to five rails per minute 
with the train moving at the rate of two miles per 
hour. On the Boston & Maine R. R. five high side 
cars containing 160 tons of rail were unloaded and 
set up for laying in 3 hrs. and 15 min., which includes 
time taken to clear the main track for three trains. 
The Boston & Albany R. R. accomplished on June 6, 
1912, 99 95-lb. rails handled in 50 min. using only 
one end of loader. Illustrations of work performed 
with Brown Rail Loaders on the New York, New 
Haven & Hartford R. R., are : 

July, 1913, 625 100-lb. rails handled in 4 hrs. and 30 mins., 

using' only one end of loader. 
July, 1913, 53 100-lb. rails handled in 17 mins., using one end 

only. 



20 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPEE 

The amounts of time stated in these records include 
the time necessary to clear the track for other trains. 

Tracklaying by machine with treated ties. It is 
difficult to lay track with a track laying machine 
when treated ties are used. A report on this work by 
E. E. Roos, Superintendent of Track on the Pecos & 
Northern Texas Ry., states that in using ties right 
from the treating plant, the dripping oil made them 




Fig. 3. View of Brown Rail Loader Ready for Operation 

slip badly when carried forward on the rails. As the 
carrier for the ties is above the carrier for the rails 
the oil dripping on the rails gets them in a greasy con- 
dition, making it hard for the machine to grip the 
rails and frequently breaking the driving chain. 

Cost of track laying with a track machine. 
A large job of track laying is described in the April 
1, 1914, issue of Engineering and Contracting, as fol- 
lows: Every device or appliance which would help 
along the work was furnished. Tools and machinery 
were maintained at top efficiency through frequent ex- 
pert attention. Years of experience have developed a 
construction organization of enviable efficiency. It is 
not surprising, therefore, that the costs appear ex- 
ceedingly low, as compared with track laying by rail- 
way company forces. The costs given do not include 



CONSTRUCTION 21 

unloading: the material in the material yard, loading 
it into the distributing train, nor transporting it to 
the ''front." 

One of the most vital reasons why contractors turn 
out cheaper work than railway companies is the fact 
that they offer better wages and thereby get better 
laborers in the end, as the weeding out process is 
available when good wages are paid. Also, stipula- 
tions are usually introduced into contracts which 
make the owner liable for extras in case the contract- 
or's work is held up or interfered with. Conse- 
quently, great efforts are made to keep the contractors ' 
force fully supplied with material and room to work in. 

Make-up of track laying machine train. When 
laying track, the train carrying the machine is made 
up as follows, beginning with the ''pioneer car," 
which always remains at the "front," and is not 
changed out as are the other cars in the train. Imme- 
diately behind the "pioneer" are four cars of rails, 
then the locomotive, and behind that eight cars of 
ties; next comes a car of tie plates, when they are 
used, the "trailer," which is a car carrying spikes, 
bolts and base plates, a car of plank for crossings, a 
car of cattle guards, a tool car and the way car. This 
makes twenty cars, and all are flats except the two 
last mentioned. 

The first car of rail behind the pioneer is 
"trimmed"; that is, on it are loaded angle bars 
enough to lay the amount of steel carried on the train. 
The angle bars are carried forward over the pioneer 
car and delivered as needed to the ' ' strap hangers ' ' in 
front. The rails underneath the angle bars are the 
last ones laid from the train, in order that the angle 
bars may be cleared off by the time rails are needed. 

A system of trams is used to carry the ties and rails 
to the front. The trams are made in sections, each 33 
ft. long, the sides consisting of 2% by 10 in. planks. 



22 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

Tie trams are 14 in. wide, and rail trams are 12 in. 
wide. The trams are held tog:ether by bolts on which 
are pipe separators to hold the sides the proper dis- 
tance apart. Near the bottom of the trams are live 
rollers, which complete a trough-shaped way for ties 
or rails. 

On the pioneer car is installed a 20-h.p. upright 
engine for driving the live rollers in the trams; this 
is done by means of a tumbler shaft and gear or cog 
wheels. Steam for the stationary engine is piped 
from the locomotive. The shaft is fitted with patent 
couplings, consisting, on one end of each section, of 
a casting containing a square socket into which the 
end of the next rod fits. Each length of tram has a 
section of the shaft bolted to it and as the trams are 
hung the rods are fitted together, thus forming a 
continuous shaft. The trams are '' hung " on iron 
brackets or trusses which hook into the stake pockets 
on the cars. The trusses are made with flange rollers 
on which the trams are placed, thus taking care of the 
slack of the train in starting and stopping. The 
trams have a coupling device which holds them to- 
gether, the ones on the pioneer being permanently 
fastened to the car. 

The tie trams, 660 ft. long, are operated on the 
right hand side of the train. Those for the rail, 240 
ft. long, are on the left. The movement of ties and 
rail is controlled by the ''dinkey skinner," i.e., the 
stationary engineer, so as to deliver them in front of 
the train as needed. A tie chute, 53 ft. long, provided 
with dead rollers, is attached at the front end of the 
tie tram on the pioneer, and through this chute the 
ties are pushed by the ones coming forward over the 
live rollers. As fast as they are delivered at the end 
of the chute they are taken by the ''tie buckers" (la- 
borers) and are placed across the grade ready for the 
rails. 



CONSTRUCTION 23 

A similar chute attached to the rail tram provides a 
way for delivering the rail in front of the pioneer. 
These chutes are supported at the outer end by cables 
attached to the rear end of the pioneer car and car- 
ried up over a high frame work or "gallows" on the 
front end. A boom, also attached to the front end of 
the pioneer car, extends far enough ahead to have the 
cable attached to it reach the middle of the rail when 
placing it in position in track. This cable is oper- 
ated by hand with an ordinary crab. Instead of 
cranks, a light buggy wheel is used by the operator 
to wind up the cable, which lifts the rail and holds it 
while the "heeler" and his assistants place it in posi- 
tion on the tracks. (A newer device handles the cable 
with compressed air.) The rails are placed in the 
trams by three men and are handled in front by six 
more. One man on each car places the ties in the 
trams. The spikes, bolts and base plates are peddled 
from the trailer as the train proceeds. 

The rails are held to gage by bridle rods until the 
train passes over, all spiking being done in the rear. 
The train moves ahead one rail length at a time when 
laying square joints, and half a rail length when lay- 
ing broken joints. The trams are taken down when 
cars are empty and replaced on the loaded cars when 
a new train arrives. From 100 to 125 men are re- 
quired for a full crew. 

Material for the track machine is loaded by railway 
company forces, and great care is taken to have 
the material loaded, not only in correct proportion, 
but in correct order and position on cars. A train 
called the "swing train" is then made up of sufficient 
material for a half day's w^ork, and is transported to 
the front, or rather to the camp of the contractor, 
where it is placed in the most convenient place avail- 
able for the track machine crew to pick up. The 
swing train crew then takes a train of empties and re- 



24 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

turns to the material yard. The track machine is 
served regularly by the same locomotive and train 
crew. As the track machine does not move ahead by 
its own power a locomotive and train crew are re- 
quired to remain with the machine constantly. 

Briefly, the movement of the machine is as follows, 
in laying square jointed track: ties are trimmed and 
carried ahead constantly and laid on the grade; the 
machine moves ahead, and a rail is chuted out and 
heeled in by the rail gang, and the angle bars bolted 
on loosely with two bolts only ; a second rail is placed 
and held to gage by bridle rods; the machine is then 
moved ahead a rail length by the locomotive, and the 
operation repeated. 

Back of the machine the bridle rods are removed, 
and enough ties are spiked to hold the rails from 
spreading. Spacing ties, bolt tightening and full 
bolting are all done behind the machine and cause it 
no delay. 

Organization of gang. A gang of 127 men will 
easily lay two miles of track per day, provided no un- 
usual difficulties, such as soft grade, etc., are en- 
countered. A gang of this size would be placed about 
as follows : 

1 general foreman, per day $ 5.00 

1 ass't foreman, with rail gang, per day 3.50 

1 ass't foreman, watching trams, per day 3.50 

1 ass't foreman, with spikers, per day 3.50 

1 ass't foreman, lining track, per day 3.50 

1 stationary engineer, per month 75.00 

1 pole man, per month 75.00 

1 oiler, per day 2.50 

1 line man, per day 2.25 

16 "tie buckers," per day $2.25 and 2.50 

2 tie spacers, ahead of machine, per day 2.25 

1 man fiddling ties, per day 2.25 

6 "rust eaters," handling rail, per day 2.50 

1 bridle man, per day 2.25 

1 heel nipper, per day 2.25 



OONSTRUCTION 25 

2 strap hangers, per day $ 2.25 

1 man, carrying angle bars from "trimmed" car to 

pioneer car, per day 2.25 

3 steel rollers, rolling rails into trams, per day. . . . 2.50 
8 tie trammers, rolling ties into trams, per day 2,25 

2 spike peddlers, distributing spikes, per day 2.25 

2 bolt and joint plate peddlers, per day 2.25 

2 "bridle men," carrying bridle rods from rear, per 

day 2.25 

4 rear bolters, per day 2.25 

2 water boys, per day 2.25 

8 men spacing ties, per day 2.25 

1 gage man, per day 2.25 

32 spikers, per day 2.50 

16 nippers, per day $2.25 and 2.50 

8 liners, per day 2.25 

127 

When the gang is smaller, the force behind the 
machine is cut down, and 74 men would be organized 
about as follow^ : 

1 general foreman, per day $ 5.00 

1 ass't foreman, with rail gang, per day 3,50 

1 ass't foreman, watching trams, per day 3.50 

1 ass't foreman, with rail gang, per day 3.50 

1 ass't foreman on general work, per day 3.50 

1 stationary engineer, per month 75.00 

1 pole man, per month 75.00 

1 oiler, per day 2.50 

1 line man, per day 2.25 

10 "tie buckers," per day $2.25 and 2.50 

2 tie spacers, per day 2.25 

6 rail handlers, per day 2.50 

1 bridle man, per day 2.25 

1 heel nipper, per day 2.25 

2 strap hangers, per day 2.25 

1 man carrying angle bars, per day 2.25 

3 steel rollers, per day 2.50 

8 tie trammers, per day 2.25 

2 spike peddlers, per day 2.25 

2 bolt and point plate peddlers, per day 2.25 

1 bridle rod man, per day 2.25 

2 rear bolters, per day 2.25 

1 water boy, per day 2.25 



26 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

1 gage man, per day $ 2.25 

4 men spacing ties, per day 2.25 

12 spikers, per day 2.50 

6 nippers, per day 2.50 

74 

During the work from which the cost data were ob- 
tained, the gang varied from about 50 to 100 men. 
The $2.50 laborers (spikers, nippers, and tie buckers) 
averaged about 40 per cent of the entire gang for 
the 65 days worked. The following expenses were 
chargeable against track laying: 

Overhead charge on machine (interest at 6 per cent, 

depreciation at 10 per cent) $ 100.00 

Dinkey skinner at $100 per mo 210.00 

Timekeeper at $85 per mo 177.00 

Locomotive and crew, 65 days, at $40 2,600.00 

Supervision and labor 8,710.00 

$11,797.00 
Force account, or extras allowed 578.00 

$11,219.00 
Average cost per mile $280.50 

This cost represents the cost to the contractor, plus 
the cost of the locomotive and crew at $40 per da^^ 
The latter charge should be added, however, as it rep- 
resents a real part of the operation expense of the 
track machine. 

The general track conditions. The organization of 
a force w^orking on a track laying machine is easily 
adjustable to the amount of laborers at hand, within 
certain limits, by a foreman who is competent. When 
a full crew is not available, the man in charge will cut 
out certain parts of the work, such as full spiking and 
bolting behind the machine, reduce the number of the 
"tie buckers," viz., men carrying ties, to the mini- 
mum, take off the lining gang from behind, and so 
on all through the entire crew wherever a man can 



CONSTRUCTION 27 

possibly be spared, leaving only those laborers whose 
work is absolutely necessary to be done while the rail 
is being laid. The rest is left to be done on the 
''back work." The two methods given above illus- 
trate this. Occasionally a crew becomes so small when 
men are scarce, that only half of a train will be laid 
in a half day. This is expensive for the contractor as 
it generally necessitates "taking down" and ''hang- 
ing ' ' the trams an extra time for a mile of track. 

When a full crew is on the work a mile of track can 
be easily laid in from three to four hours, including 
hanging and taking down the trams.. 

The track, from which the cost of track laying above 
was computed, was laid during the winter months, 
and some bad weather was encountered, but the work 
probably progressed as fast as it would in the summer 
months, when extremely hot weather is likely to slow 
up the men. 

The rail used was the standard length 33 ft., laid 
square joints on tangents and broken joints on curves. 
When a curve was reached a rail was cut to break the 
joints, the cut being figured so that the short part 
was used on the inside of the curve at the start, and 
then the long part was used at the end on the outside 
of the rail of curve to square the joints for the 
tangent. The specifications stipulated that joints must 
not be laid within four feet of the ends of bridges and 
culverts. To avoid cutting rails to meet this condi- 
tion, fractional steel (short rails) was loaded on the 
"trimmed" car, and when approaching a bridge the 
distance was measured, and if found necessary 
a panel or more of these short length rails would be 
used to bring the joints the desired distance from the 
end of the bridge. In laying through yards where 
sidings were located, the main line was laid through 
regardless of the switches, and when switches were 
put in they were laid as near to the engineer's loca- 



2S THE TKACKMAN'S HELPER 

tion as they could be put without cutting a main line 
rail. The fractional steel, a certain amount of which 
all companies agree to take with every large order for 
rail, was laid between the switches on the main lines 
through station grounds. As a rule the sidings were 
all laid with released rail, the work being done by 
hand. 

The rail was of 90-lb. section laid on white oak ties, 
spaced 18 to 21 under a 33 ft. rail on tangent, and 19 
to 22 on curves. The joints were made with ordinary 
angle bars with four bolts, and spring nut locks. The 
heads of the bolts were staggered, that is, alternate 
bolt heads were respectively on the inside and outside 
of rail. The number of ties per rail length was 
varied to suit their sizes, i. e., 18 broad faced ties be- 
ing used, or 21 narrow faced ties, on tangents. 

The cost of transporting the machine and the men 
to the work is not included herein, the data given rep- 
resenting the costs after the machinery and the 
laborers were on the work. 

An inspector was employed by the company, but al- 
though his expenses represent a charge against the 
track by the railway, it is not chargeable against the 
contractor's expenses. 

A labor saver for unloading rails from end door 
box, stock or coal cars. The following notes are by 
Mr. F. L. Guy. 

Frequently steel rails are shipped from the mills in 
end door box, stock or coal cars, and for railroads in 
the West this is very often the case. This is caused 
by the scarcity of flat cars, or to save back haul on 
empty cars. Thousands of stock cars are shipped 
into Chicago from the West every month, and there 
are not many articles that can be loaded in these cars 
for the West. A large number of railroads in the 
West utilize these stock cars for rail. 

To unload rails for relaying from flat cars is a 



CONSTRUCTION 29 

simple proposition. The car stakes are taken out and 
the rails are pinched off the sides of the cars with 
pinch or lining bars. When the rails are pinched 
off they fall on the shoulder of the roadbed and no 
further handling is necessary except to butt them 
against the rail that has been thrown off before. 
There are necessary for this work about eight men on 
each side of the flat car and about as many men on 
the ground. 

To unload rails from box, stock or coal cars is a 
very different proposition. It is necessary to have 
two ropes about 50 ft. long. On one end of each 
rope a ring about 3 in. in diameter is fastened, and 
on the other end is a hook made from ^^2 oi* %-in. 
round iron with a square turn. This hook must be 
small enough to go into the bolt holes of the rail that 
is being unloaded. 

A man is stationed on each side of the track about 
50 ft. from the end of the car. Each man has a lining 
bar, and they jab their bars down between the ties 
and then drop the rings on the ends of the ropes over 
the tops of the bars and let the rings drop to the 
ground. The hooks on the other ends of the ropes 
are then inserted into the bolt holes of two rails, one 
on each side of the car. The car is then moved ahead, 
and the rails into which the hooks are fastened slip 
out of the car and fall in between the track rails. 
Men are then assembled around the two rails which 
have just fallen, and throw them out on the shoulder 
of the roadbed. 

The device which is shown by the accompanying 
sketch (Fig. 4) is to throw the rails out on the shoul- 
der when they come out of the cars. It consists of 
a light rail say 48 or 52 lbs. about 10 ft. long, and 
two pieces of 1 x 3-in. by 4-f t. strip iron. The rail 
is bent into an A shape and the ends are turned up a 
little to check the fall of the rail that is being un- 



30 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



loaded. The strips of iron are bolted to the web of 
the rail about ly^ ft. from the apex to balance the A- 
frame and keep it away from the end of the car. The 
strips should be bent upward and should be so turned 
as to get a good bearing against the bottom of the 
floor of the car. The ends of the A-frame should 
extend about 3I/2 ft. from the end of the car. This 
is to keep the rail which is being unloaded from jump- 
ing over when it falls out of the car. 

The men with the bars should place them^ on the 
outside of the track rails, as near as possible to the 
ends of the ties, and when the car is moved ahead the 
ends of the rails in which the hooks are fastened will 





Fig. 4, Device Used in Unloading Rails From End Door 
Box, Stock or Coal Cars 

fall to the ground on the outside of the track rails. 
When the other ends of the rails slide out of the 
car they will fall on the A-frame and slide down and 
fall outside of the track rails on to the shoulder, where 
they will be out of the way. 

This device saves the work of about eight men, as 
the rails do not have to be lifted out from between 
the track rails, and it also saves time for the entire 
crew, as they do not have to wait until the rails are 
taken out of the way. The design of the strips can be 
varied to suit any make or class of cars. They can 
also be shifted up or down the A-frame to suit local 
conditions. When one car is unloaded the A-frame 
can be lifted off and placed on another car by four 
men and very little time is lost. 



OONSTRUCTION 



31 



This device in about this same form has been used 
on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., Eastern 
Lines, for some little time with considerable suc- 
cess. 

List of track tools for maintenance. After the 
construction of a new road, the following tools will be 
required for use on each section. 

For gangs composed 
of foreman and 



Kinds of Tool;: 



Adzes, with handles 

Axes, chopping, with handles 1 

Ballast template 1 

Ballast forks (stone ballast sections) 4 

Bars, claw 3 

Bars, lining 6 

Brooms, common 2 

" rattan 6 

Cans, oiler for hand car 1 

one gallon oil 1 

" five gallons oil 1 

Cars, hand 1 

" push 1 

Chain for locking 2 

Chisels, track 6 

Cups 1 

Funnels 1 

Grindstones 1 

Handles, extra for adze 1 



" axe 1 

" " " picks G 

" " " sledge or spike maul 1 

Hand axe 1 

Hoes, scuffle (gravel section only) . 6 



Jacks, Track #1 
Kegs, water 15 gi 
Lanterns, white 

red 
" yellow 

green 



2 

l1 1 

complete 4 

4 

4 

2 

Lantern Globes, white 2 

red * 2 

yellow . 2 



6 4 2 
men men men 

2 2 2 
1 
1 
2 
2 
4 
2 
4 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
6 
1 
1 
1 
1 



32 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



Kinds of Tools 



For gangs composed 
of foreman and 
6 4 2 
men men men 



Lantern Globes, green ; 2 

Level, track 1 

Mauls, spike, with handles 4 

Picks, common 6 

" tamping, stone ballast sections 6 

Pliers, wire 1 

Post hole digger 1 

Punch, track, round with handles 1 

Rakes, on gravel sections 1 

Saw, hand 1 

" crosscut 1 

Scythes, briar or grass complete 6 

Shovels, track 7 

Signals, flags, red 3 

" " green 3 

" yellow 3 

Sledge, 14 lbs. with handles 1 

8 " " " 1 

Spike puller 1 

Tape line, 50 ft 1 

Torch 1 

Torpedoes 40 

Track gages 2 

Whetstones 6 

Wire stretcher 1 

Wrenches, Monkey, 14" 1 

Track 7 

Switch ( 2 sizes ) 2 

Wire, telegraph ( 100 ft. coil) 1 

Force required for double tracking. The follow- 
ing notes were published in Ey. Eng. & M. of "W. 

''The proper distribution of laborers is dependent 
on class, size, and weight of material, as well as on the 
class of labor employed. Individual opinions and 
methods of foremen also cause differences in distribu- 
tion of men. After a grade has been completed and 
the ties lined and spaced approximately, a gang may 
be organized as follows, subject to the supervision of 
one foreman and one assistant: 



5 


3 


5 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


40 


40 


2 


1 


5 


3 


1 


1 


1 


1 


5 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 



CONSTRUCTION 33 

Tie fiddler 1 Spike and bolt peddler 1 

Tie spacers 2 or 4 Spikers 12 

Steel gang 12 Tie nippers 6 

Rail nipper 1 Gage liner 1 

Strap hangers 2 Back bolters 2 

Strap tighteners 2 Tool man 1 

Joint plate peddler 1 Water boy 1 

"The tie fiddler is provided with a fiddle, i.e., a short 
board with a cleat nailed on it at right angles near 
one end. The distance from the inside edge of the 
cleat to the end of the board is the standard distance 
for the rail base from the end of the tie. This fiddle 
is held on the face of the tie with the cleat securely 
against the end, and a. mark made on the tie along the 
uncleated end of the fiddle. The outside track spike 
should be set on this line when spiking. Before mark- 
ing a tie, the fiddler should examine it, and be sure 
that the bark side is up. The tie fiddler will gen- 
erally be able to run ahead of the gang without diffi- 
culty. He should also set the tie line. For this pur- 
pose it is handy to have a board of such a length 
that if one end is placed against the ball of the rail 
in the old track, the opposite end will show the proper 
line for the new track ties. 

"Two tie spacers work behind the tie fiddler. They 
are provided with a rod of the same length as the rail 
which is to be laid. The marks for tie centers for 
one rail length are marked off on the rod, which is 
laid on the ground with the rear end even with the 
head end of the last rail laid. This rod should be 
used on the line side, as the line rail is set up first. 
Picks are generally used by the tie spacers in dragging 
the ties to center. The pick point (if pick is used) 
should be stuck in the end of the tie and never in 
the top or side. When spacing ties the man on 
the line side pulls the ties to the line (previously 
stretched), and the man on the gage side places 
the end of his tie so that it lies square across the 



34 THE TEACKMAN'S HELPER 

grade. The tie spacers must space ties for a full 
rail length while the steel gang is setting up two 
rails. Possibly four tie spacers may be needed 
in some cases in order not to delay the rail gang. 
The spacers must also inspect all joint ties, and 
if they are deficient in size or quality, they should 
be exchanged for those of better grade. In lining ties 
they should not be pulled up against the tie line, but 
should be left about i/4-inch away. If the ties are 
allowed to touch the line, some of them are bound to 
throw a kink into it. If broken joints are being used 
in the track, the work of tie spacing is increased. 
Several ties near the middle of the line rail will have 
to be shifted in order to fit the joint slots on the gage 
rail. 

''The rail gang picks up the rail, sets the rear end 
on the ties, at the same time entering the rail ball into 
the angle bars hung on the rail previously laid. The 
head end of the rail is dropped at a word from the 
heeler, and this movement throws the rail into proper 
position in the angle bars. The heeler now gives the 
command 'heel,' and the rail is pulled backward 
against an expansion shim, inserted between the 
ends of the rails. In setting up the line side the 
assistant foreman should see that the rail is set as 
near as may be to its correct line, as shown by the 
fiddled chalk marks on the tie. The gage rail should 
also be placed approximately in correct position. 
For this purpose a light wooden gage can be used; if 
none is furnished, one may be easily made with a 
board and a couple of blocks of wood. If the rails 
are set up as described, scarcely any ties will have to 
be lined up by the line spikers ; the work of the gaging 
spikers is also reduced to a minimum, and the track 
when finished will be approximately in correct line, 
so that work is saved the lining gang as well as the 
spikers. 



CONSTRUCTION 35 

' ' In order to facilitate setting up a rail and putting 
it in its proper place in the angle bars, a 'nipper' 
is provided. He carries a bar to raise the angle bars 
or rails as necessary. 

"The strap hangers use short handled wrenches, 
these being handier and permitting faster work than 
long handled ones. The latter are not necessary as 
the strappers are required only to start the nuts, and 
not to tighten them. When a rail is set up, the strap- 
per hangs a pair of angle bars on the head end. As 
the next rail is heeled into place he puts in a bolt 
through the rail being placed, and after giving the 
nut a few rapid turns, goes ahead and repeats the 
operation. Two bolt tighteners follow, and tighten 
the nuts which the strappers have started. 

"The joint plate peddler places the joint plates 
under the rail in the proper position for spiking. 
The spike and bolt peddler distributes four spikes 
for each tie, and enough bolts and nut-locks at each 
joint to finish bolting in full. These two men should 
work together and help each other out whenever neces- 
sary. 

''Before spiking a tie, the nipper on the head gang 
of spikers should see that the outside of the base of 
rail is nearly in line with the chalk line marks on 
the ties. If it is not in line, he should move the 
rail over approximately to line with his nipping 
bar. 

"The outside line spiker sets the outside spike on 
the fiddled mark, and gives it one heavy blow with 
the spike maul. The nipper then raises the tie up 
against the rail with a bar, using as a heel the nipping 
block. The operation shoves the ties over until the 
line spike sets snugly against the rail. The inside 
spiker then sets his spike, and both spikes are driven. 
The spikers work in six gangs, three on each side of 
the track. The head gang spikes every third tie, the 



36 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

second ^ang takes the tie just behind it, and the third 
gang spikes the remaining tie. The rail, when spiked, 
should have a solid bearing. If the face of the tie 
does not afford a good even bearing, the gage spikers 
must adze off the part of the tie beneath the rail, so 
that a good bearing is assured. In having the gangs 
spike every third tie there are the following advan- 
tages: (1) Twelve to 16 spikers may be kept work- 
ing in a distance of 60 feet or less, and being close 
together, allow easy supervision by the foreman. In 
the older method — i.e., each gang spiking a rail length 
in full — the spikers frequently become scattered over 
a distance of 200 to 300 feet. Spikes should be driven 
perpendicularly and uniformly on the corresponding 
edges of the ties and to accomplish this it is necessary 
to have the men close enough together so that the 
foreman can easily watch each man; (2) Any gang 
of spikers must do as much work as the head spikers, 
or fall behind, since the gangs are spiking tie for tie. 
It is easy in this manner to discover an unwilling or 
incompetent man; (3) By putting the best gangs in 
the lead on each side of the track a greater amount 
of work is accomplished. The back bolters bolt the 
joints in full and turn up each nut as tight as pos- 
sible. Back bolting requires little skill and only ordi- 
nary strength; this is a good place to start in green 
or inexperienced men. 

"The tool man is one of the most important men on 
the gang. If a good trustworthy man is selected he 
may save the foreman much responsibility. He is 
held accountable for the number of tools on the work 
each day, and also for the tools in the tool boxes. 
The condition and supply of tools can be left entirely 
with him ; in case any are in bad order, it is his busi- 
ness to exchange them for good tools; if necessary 
he must use his own ingenuity in repairing those on 



OONSTRUCTION 37 

hand or in 'borrowing' from other gangs. A live 
tool man will be on the lookout and know when new 
tools arrive on the job, and thus be sure of obtaining 
his share. Although little hard work is required, a 
tool man should be chosen who is industrious, reliable 
and intelligent. 

' ' A very handy way of taking care of tools and sur- 
plus material, in double tracking, is to have a push 
car on the track which is being built; the tool boxes 
are kept on this car. The tool man shoves the car 
along as the work advances; he takes out the shims 
and picks up all scattered tools and light track ma- 
terial, loading them on the car. In this manner ex- 
cess tools and materials are convenient for emergen- 
cies. 

''When setting up rail, the assistant foreman has 
charge only of the steel gang, strappers, tie spacers, 
and the fiddler. If these men are able to run far 
ahead of the spikers, setting up rail can be dis- 
continued and the rail gang organized into spikers, 
bolters, etc. The assistant foreman is responsible for 
proper expansion in the track and must be careful to 
use a uniform thickness of shim. 

''The foreman will generally have to instruct his 
assistant as to the proper thickness of shim to use, 
and when to change to a thicker or thinner size. The 
temperature of the steel is what should govern, and 
not the temperature of the air. The temperature of 
steel, in general, lags below the air temperature in the 
morning, and loses its heat less rapidly than the air 
in the afternoon. If a subgrade is rough and uneven 
a greater allowance should be made for expansion, as 
the track will shorten when brought up to surface. 
The track laid should be lined at the end of each day 
to prevent shortening. The track laid in one day will 
move ahead when the short kinks are lined out, but 



38 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

if lining is neglected for several clays the weight of 
the track becomes too great to move ahead, and all 
lengthening caused by kinks being straightened will 
be made up by a decrease in the expansion. 

''In case the number of men is too small to organ- 
ize completely for all the necessary operations in 
track laying, some of the work can be done before 
starting to lay track. Peddling material, fiddling and 
lining ties may be done beforehand. Spiking can be 
partially done while setting up the steel and back 
bolting can be done after the steel is set up and spiked 
to gage. Track should be jointed up and gaged when 
laying, in order to obtain correct expansion. If rails 
are set up and the angle bars not put on, it is impos- 
sible to keep some of the expansion shims from falling 
out, and the ends of rails are liable to run past and 
necessitate shifting a number of them, when jointing 
up later. 

"The foreman is responsible for both the quantity 
and quality of work done. He must organize the 
gang, and must be ready at any time to make changes 
necessary on account of the absence of laborers. If a 
number of men leave at the same time and new men 
are not available, the whole gang must be reorgan- 
ized. As the assistant foreman's time is constantly 
taken up by the rail gang, the foreman must super- 
vise the spiking and back bolting as well as inspect 
the work of the assistant foreman." 

Cost of machine tracklaying and organization of 
gang on Erie R. R. in 1910. 

The following data on tracklaying by machine are 
given by Mr. C. K. Conrad, Assistant Engineer for 
the work in the low-grade freight line from Guymard 
to Highland Mills of the Erie R. R., in the Railway 
Age-Gazette for June 3, 1910. A Hurley tracklaying 
machine was used. 

After many trials with fewer men, it was found 



CONSTRUCTION 39 

that the best results were obtained with 51 men, work- 
ing as follows : 

1 General foreman. 
1 Foreman. 

1 Lineman stretching a light rope at proper offset distance 

from center line. 

2 Tie spacers. 

1 Tie marker, placing marks on ties so that center of tie 
will be set midwa}^ between rails. 

1 Clamp man, applying hoisting clamp to rails before low- 
ering. 

1 Clamp man on ground disengaging hoisting clamp and 

steadying rail. 
> 8 Spikers, four to each rail. 
4 Nippers, two to each rail. 

2 Bolters, one to each rail. 

1 Clamper, holding angle bars for bolts. 

2 Barmen, holding rail to gage. 
1 Spike peddler. 

26 Total in front of wheels of machine, 

1 Engineer, in charge of the machine. 

1 Assistant, working rail conveyor, as rails leave the fric- 
tion rolls. 

1 Bolter, removing bolts as rails leave the roll. 

1 Fireman. 

1 Watchman (night). 

2 Feeding ties to dogs at rear of machine. 

7 Total on machine. 

2 Breaking out ties. 

8 Spacing ties. 

1 Watching and guiding ties. 

11 Total attending to the ties. 

1 At rear hoist. 

1 Advancing rails on rollers. 

2 Placing angle bars, and one bolt on front end of rail. 
2 Bolting to forward rails. 

1 Tightening bolts. 

7 Total feedinsf the rail. 



40 THE THACKMAN'S HELPER 

Cost of laying track. Nearly all of the second 
track on the Erie & Jersey was laid by hand. As most 
railway companies are familiar with this cost on their 
own line, it seems advantageous to compare it with 
the cost of the first track in order to give a correct idea 
of what the cost with the machine would be under the 
same conditions. 

With a machine laying a mile per day the cost was 
as follows: 

Laying track hy machine 

1 General foreman at $5.00 $ 5.00 

1 Engineer at $5.00 5.00 

1 Fireman at $2.25 2.25 

1 Foreman at $3.50 3.50 

50 Laborers at $L50 75.00 

1 Watchman (night) , at $2.25 2.25 

Machine, coal and oil 30.00 

Full bolting and spiking after passage of machine: 

1 General foreman at $5.00 $ 5.00 

1 Foreman at $3.50 3.50 

50 Laborers at $1.50 75.00 

Loading materials — ties : 

1 Foreman at $3.00 $ 3.00 

35 Laborers at $1.50 52.50 

Engine and crew 35.00 

Rails and fastenings: 

1 Foreman at $2.00 $ 2.00 

20 Laborers at $1.50 . 30.00 

Total $ 32.00 

6,963 lin. ft. of rail and fastenings loaded: 

This gives per mile of track $ 48.53 

Engine and crew 35.00 

Total rail and fastenings $ 83.53 

Total per mile of track $380.53 



CONSTRUCTION 41 

Laying second track hy hand 
Spacing ties, spiking and full bolting 3,000 ft.: 

2 Foremen at $3.00 $ 6.00 

74 Laborers at $1.50 $111.00 



Total $117.00 

Per mile $205.92 

Loading ties : 

1 Foreman at $3.00 $ 3.00 

74 Laborers at $1.50 52.50 

$55.50 

Unloading ties: 

1 Foreman at $3.00 $ 3.00 

6 Laborers at $1.50 9.00 

$12.00 

Engine and crew 35.00 

$102.50 

Loading rail and fastenings, same as for machine $ 48.53 

Unloading rail and fastenings: 

2 Foremen at $2.00 $ 4.00 

28 Laborers at $1.50 42.00 



Total $ 46.00 

Above worked four hours 18.40 18.40 



Total per mile of track $375.35 

It should be realized, of course, that these figures do 
not represent the cost of continuing the work day by 
day ; but they are representative figures for each class 
of work under similar conditions. The cost of laying 
the first track of a double track railway by hand is 
variable, depending largely on the accessibility of the 
roadbed for teams, as the ties are usually transferred 
from the tie car to the front by this means. The 
second track should be laid at a fairly regular cost. 

So far as the track laid by machine is concerned, 
it is not possible at this date to determine which track 
was so laid. When laying down grade there is a tend- 



42 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPEE 

ency to open the joints. Clips for the proper tem- 
perature expansion are a necessity. From the ex- 
perience with the machine the following may be ac- 
cepted: (1) On a new line 25 miles long, or more, 
the machine will prove economical. (2) The track 
laid with the machine will be as satisfactory as track 
laid by hand. (3) The organization will be reduced 
in number by 150 to 200 men. (4) It is feasible to 
lay one mile of track per day up to a limit of 12 or 
15 miles from the supply base. (5) The danger of 
injury to men is largely reduced. 









II 












SPIKING AND GAGING 






No. of spikes per mile of single track 


• 




Size as 


Kegs pee 


Mile. 


(4 Spikes tc 


> a Tie) •§ 


Meas'd ©S 














03 


Under Jzi'g 


Using 


33 ft. Rails 


Using 30 ft. Rails 


Ties g 


Head i> to 


20 


18 


16 


18 


16 


14 


2 ft. «S 


^M 


Ties per Eail 


Ties per Rail C to C ^ 

ej 


6 X % 260 


49.2 


44.3 


39.4 


48.7 


43.3 


37.9 


40.6'^ ^ 


6 X 9/i6 350 


36.6 


32,9 


29.3 


36.2 


32.2 


28.2 


30.2 g S 


51/2 X % 290 


44.1 


39.7 


35.3 


43.7 


38.8 


34.0 


SQAt^ ^ 


51/2x9/16 375 


34.1 


30.7 


27.3 


33.8 


30.0 


26.3 


28.2 ^ ^ 


5 X 9/16 400 


32.0 


28.8 


25.6 


31.7 


28.2 


24.6 


2QAta 


5 X 1/2 450 


28.5 


25.6 


22.8 


28.2 


25.0 


21.9 


23.5 .S 


41/2 X 1/2 530 


24.2 


21.8 


19.3 


23.9 


21.3 


18.6 


I9.9J 


41/2 X V16 680 


18.8 


17.0 


15.1 


18.6 


16.6 


14.5 


15.5| 





Spikes per m 

mile 12800 11520 10240 12672 11264 9856 10560 

No allowance made in this table for broken or lost spikes. 

Hints about spiking. Track should always be kept 
full spiked and in perfect gage. In order to keep it 
thus, a gage of the standard width should be used, 
and when track is spiked the gage should be squared 
across, about six or eight inches ahead of the tie, and 
remain between the rails until the tie is spiked. The 
outside spike should not be allowed to draw the rail 
too tight on the gage or to be driven loosely, which 
would affect the width of the track after the gage is 
lifted. When gage is tight, start inside spike first; 
when loose, start the outside spike first. Bad gaging 
detracts from the appearance of an otherwise good 

43 



44 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

track and makes the track more likely to be kicked out 
of line. To be driven properly a spike should rest 
upon its point almost vertically when receiving the 
first stroke, which, if delivered properly, will leave 
the spike perfectly straight up and down which is the 
way it should be continued. Care should be taken 
never to strike the last blow on a spike too hard, as 
this may crack the head or break it off, rendering the 
spike useless. 

To draw a spike in frosty weather, or to draw a 
spike out of an oak tie at any time of the year, tap 
the spike on the head with a spike maul once 
or twice before attempting to pull it out of the tie 
with the claw bar. In most cases there will then be 
no difficulty in pulling the spike without breaking it. 
Tapping the spike with the maul loosens its hold 
on the wood of the tie and makes it easier to re- 
move. If an opposite course be pursued and track- 
men try to pull spikes without doing as above di- 
rected, a great number of them will break off under 
the head. 

Where to drive spikes. The spikes should be 
driven about two and one-half inches from the edge 
of a track tie. Both inside spikes should be driven 
on one edge of a tie and both outside ones on the other 
edge in order to prevent the tie slewing and also to 
assist in holding the rail from creeping. The spikes 
take a better hold in the wood of a tie, and support 
the tie under the rail better when driven in this 
way. An oak tie will split open on the ends in frosty 
weather if the spikes are driven in the center of the 
tie, which will cause it to decay more quickly and 
necessitate its removal from the track before the tie 
which remains whole. Another reason why the track 
spikes should be driven in the sides of the ties is that 
the timber in the center of most ties is softer, while 
as a rule the sides of the ties are sound. 



SPIKING AND GAGING 



45 



The diagram, Fig-. 5, shows the correct and incor- 
rect methods emploj^ed in regard to the location of 
the spikes on the ontside and inside of the rail. An 
examination of these sketches will bring this subject 
to the proper view point more easily than a great 
amount of explanation would, if it be borne in mind 
that the end of the tie on the outside of the curve is 
the one that is shoved ahead more than the end on 



Incorrect 



Correct 
SpiKing 




Correct 
SpiVcing^ 



Direction of Traffic 



^ and Creeping 



Direction of Traffic 

*» 



and Creeping 

\ncorr\sct 
Spiking 

Correct Spiking 




Correct 
Spiking 



Fig. 5. Correct and Incorrect jMethods of Placing Spikes 



the inside, which is due to the tendency of the out- 
side rail to creep more (doubtless on account of the 
sliding of wheels because of those on the outside mak- 
ing the greater distance). The rule which should be 
followed for selecting the best location for spikes to 
counteract the creeping and transfer the strain to 
the ballast through the medium of the ties, which is 
the way the strain must eventually be resisted, is as 
follows : — 

On double track the inside spikes should be placed 



46 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

at the receiving side of the tie and the outside spikes 
at the leaving side. On single track the outside spikes 
should be placed at the side of the tie in the direction 
of creeping and the inside spikes at the other side. 

Screw spikes. The following notes appeared in the 
Railway Age Gazette : 

' ' The first installation of screw spikes of any magni- 
tude was one of a half mile on the Santa Fe near 
Topeka, Kan., in 1908. Since that time the mileage 
has risen over 200 miles annually. The Santa Fe has 
over 150 miles of screw spike track and is now (1915) 
placing them in eight ties per rail on the western 
lines when laying new 90-lb, rail to secure a more 
rigid track construction. The Lackawanna is the 
largest user of screw spikes, having employed them 
exclusively in main tracks for both renewal and con- 
struction work for the past four years, until it now 
(1915) has over 12,000,000 in service. This line is 
one of relatively heavy grades and curvature with an 
average density of traffic of about 4,000,000 ton miles 
and 600,000 passenger miles per mile of line for the 
system, which figures are trebled if the main line only 
is considered, so that the service is unusually severe. 

"Wherever introduced, the screw spike has en- 
countered the opposition of the track men, who have 
pointed out numerous objections. The one most em- 
phasized has been the difficulty of removing the 
spikes when necessary to replace rails following de- 
railments or during relaying operations. The Lacka- 
wanna has a dense freight traffic on heavy grades, 
and therefore has its share of derailments. It has 
been the experience of this road that by providing a 
stronger track the screw spikes have materially de- 
creased its destruction as well as the delay to traffic 
while it was being repaired. Another threatened dis- 
advantage that has not been encountered in the ex- 
perience of the Lackawanna is difficulty in keeping 



SPIKING AND GAGING 47 

the screw spikes tight. To offset these real or fancied 
disadvantages, screw spike track construction gives a 
stronger track, requires less maintenance after in- 
stallation and greatly retards the destruction of the 
ties. 

"To secure the greatest advantages from the use of 
screw spikes in the conservation of ties corresponding 
standards must be adopted throughout the track con- 
struction. It is obvious that it is not economical to 
use screw spikes with untreated soft wood ties or 
without adequate tie plates. "While not so obvious at 
first glance, it is also important that the ties be prop- 
erly adzed and bored before treatment to retard de- 
struction uniformly. It is interesting to note in this 
connection that the use of screw spikes has enabled 
the Lackawanna to secure sufficient resistance against 
track spreading by using a flat bottom tie plate and 
thus decreasing the abrasion of the tie. 

"Where traffic is heavy and the expenditures for 
maintenance are correspondingly high, the savings re- 
sulting from the adoption of a more permanent form 
of track construction are of course greater than on 
lines of lighter traffic where a relatively long life is 
secured from the track materials. On the other hand, 
the Santa Fe is using screw spikes on its western lines 
where the rainfall is small and the resistance of timber 
to decay is relatively great, and where the ties cus- 
tomarily fail from mechanical wear. ' ' 

Comparative cost of cut and screw spiking" are 
given by Mr. J. W. Kendrick v. p., A. T. & S. Fe R. 
R. in Ry. Eng. & M. of W. 

He states that the cost of driving screw spikes is 
based on work done under unfavorable conditions on 
the Illinois Div. in 1909, and says that under ordi- 
nary conditions there should be little difference in 
cost of the two kinds of spikes. 

A proper machine at the treating plant will bore 



48 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

and plug 600 ties, with 8 plugs each, per day of 10 
hours, at a cost of 3l^^ per tie. The cost of making 
the plugs will be about 11/2^ each. The cost of screw 
spikes will be 2.1^ each ; of tie plates 21^ each. The 
cost of cut spikes will be 1.06^ each. Assuming 3,000 
ties per mile of track, with 4 spikes per tie, assuming 
that the same types of tie plates are used both with 
screw and cut spikes, and that 8 wooden dowels are 
provided for the plates with screw spikes, and no 
dowels are provided for cut spikes, the relative cost 
per mile of track would be as follows : 

One mile of track with screw spikes and dowels. 

12,000 spikes at 2.7^ each $ 324.00 

6,000 tie plates at 21^ each 1,260.00 

Boring ties for, and driving, 24,000 dowels at 1^' each 240.00 

24,000 wooden dowels at IVs^ each 360.00 

Driving screw spikes (per mile) 150.00 

Total $2,334.00 

One mile with cut spikes. 

12,000 spikes, at 1.06(/; $ 127.20 

6,000 tie plates at 21^ each 1,260.00 

Driving cut spikes (per mile) 150.00 

Total : .$1,537.20 

Experience in the use of screw spikes. The fol- 
lowing notes give a comprehensive outline of the ex- 
perience up to that time on American railroads. 

"The general use of screw spikes in both new con- 
struction and maintenance on the D. L. & W. R. R. 
was started at the beginning of 1910, and during the 
past five seasons there have been placed in new tracks 
and in maintenance of old tracks 5,120,000 flat-bot- 
tom tie plates and approximately 12,272,000 screw 
spikes. 

"As would be expected some mistakes were at first 
made, and no doubt later developments will change 



SPIKING AND GAGING 49 

some of the present practice. As a whole, however, 
the screw spike installation has proven very satisfac- 
tory, and no conditions have developed such as to 
cause any doubt about the ultimate success of the 
undertaking". Many minor difficulties which had 
been anticipated have not developed. It was fully 
expected that no small amount of trouble would be 
experienced from derailments, changing out broken 
rails, difficulty in gaging; track on sharp curves, etc. 
It is a pleasure to state that, to the writer's knowl- 
edge, we have never had a derailment where the 
screw spikes have not been very much less damaged 
than the cut spikes in the same locality, and very 
seldom has a derailment broken off any screw spikes 
or damaged them to such an extent that they did not 
continue to firmly hold the rail in place. There have 
been many cases of derailment where it was not nec- 
essary to remove a screw spike, whereas nearly every 
cut spike on the damaged side of the rail was de- 
stroyed. Again, there have been some derailments 
where it is reasonably certain that bad accidents were 
prevented by screw spikes in some of the ties holding 
the rails in position, whereas the cut spikes in the 
other ties were destroyed. As to relaying rails, or 
removing broken rails, it is to be expected that the 
use of screw spikes will require more time to do the 
work. 

''Ties in use. The Lackawanna Railroad first com- 
menced to creosote cross-ties on an extensive scale in 
1910. During 1910 and since that time all main and 
sidetrack renewals have been made with creosoted 
ties, excepting such chestnut ties as were available. 
These chestnut ties were used in sidetracks and on 
branch lines, where the service is light. 

"From 1905 to 1909 a good many bridge-tie renew- 
als were made with longleaf yellow pine, treated with 
12 lbs. of creosote oil per cubic foot. These ties were 



50 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

steamed at a 25-lb. pressure for an average of eight 
hours before treatment. 'Wolhaupter' flange tie 
plates (6 X 8I/2 x %-in.) were placed on all the bridge 
ties, with the idea of protecting them. The dimen- 
sions of the ties varied with the bridge structure and 
were from 8x8 ins. to 10 x 10 ins. and 8 x 16 ins. 

"On the main-line bridges none of the treated 
bridge ties have lasted to exceed eight years. Many 
of them were renewed in six and seven years. In 
no case was the timber decayed, but the failure was 
due to the shattering of the wood fibers under the rail 
seat and tie plates. As stated above, these were all 
longleaf yellow pine ties, with a very small percent- 
age of sap. This failure has been attributed (1) to 
the fiber being injured by the steaming process be- 
fore treatment; and (2) to the destructive action of 
the flanges on the tie plates. A total of 535 of these 
ties (8x12 ins.) were placed on the eastbound track 
of a deck plate girder bridge on the Buffalo Division 
in 1906, and had to be renewed in 1914. Untreated 
ties of the same size, and purchased under same speci- 
fications, were placed on westbound track of the same 
bridge in 1905 and are still in service and in fairly 
good condition. The old flange tie plates were re- 
moved from the deck of both tracks in 1910 and re- 
placed with flat-bottom plates and screw spikes. 

' ' For several years past there have been placed very 
few chestnut ties in main-line tracks. It was found 
that they did not last to exceed five or six years, on 
account of rail and tie plates cutting through them 
very rapidly. These same ties give excellent service 
and last many years in yard tracks or on branch lines 
where the traffic is light. 

''As far as possible, hardwood ties are used on 
curved track. Longleaf yellow pine ties are generally 
used throughout on straight track. They are not used 
because they are preferable to hard woods, but on ac- 



SPIKING AND GAGING 51 

count of the difficulty in getting a sufficient supply 
of hard woods. A considerable number of loblolly 
and wide-ringed shortleaf pine ties were treated and 
placed in various services. However, unless other- 
wise stated, sap longleaf pine ties are referred to 
where pine ties are mentioned throughout this report. 
A good many gum, beech and maple ties were treated 
and placed in 1910. These ties were used in many 
sharp curves and their present condition will appear 
later on. 

''Tie plates. For several years it was the practice 
to use flanged tie plates. It was found, after some 
years' experience, that much damage was done to the 
ties by the use, of flange plates. It was, therefore, 
concluded that their use should not be further con- 
sidered, either in connection with treated or untreated 
timber. 

''A good flange plate, or something equivalent 
thereto in actual holding-power, is absolutely nec- 
essary to hold gage on many of the sharp curves. 
After a careful investigation of all available data on 
screw spikes, it was concluded to adopt them as a 
means of holding track to gage, and thus permit the 
use of a flat-bottom tie plate which would not destroy 
the fibers of the tie. Hence, since the spring of 1910, 
screw spikes and flat-bottom plates have been used 
generally in all ties placed in main tracks, heavy-run- 
ning yard tracks and leads, but not in light yard 
tracks. In no case have screw spikes been used with- 
out tie plates. 

''It is necessary to have a tie plate of sufficient size 
to provide a safe bearing area for the weakest kind] 
of wood used. As the main-track ties are 7x9 ins. x 
8 ft. 6 ins., it was considered not advisable to make 
the tie plates wider than 7 ins. 

"The first tie plates which were rolled for our 
screw-spike construction were 7 x IO14 ins. x % in., 



52 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



with raised lugs to support the heads of two screw 
spikes and with an intermediate shoulder on the out- 
side of the rail. The plates were smooth on the bot- 
tom, and did not have a shoulder or raised lug for 
the screw-spike head on the inside of the rail. The 
following season the plates were lengthened to 10% 
ins. and made % in. thick, with lugs for the inside 
screw spikes. Two holes were also punched for lag 
screws, one at either end. About a year ago they 
were again increased to % in. in thickness. 

Screw spikes. The first change from the standard 
cut spike fastening occurred in February, 1909. The 
heads of the screw spikes have been somewhat in- 

1^/ 




Fig. 6. Standard Screw Spike on D. L. & W. R. R. 

creased from those first used, on 'account of the great 
deterioration from rust caused by brine dripping at 
certain points on the line. The standard screw spike 
now in use is shown in Fig. 6. 

Holes for screw spikes. The first year that screw 
spikes were used an "Ajax" hand machine was used 
for boring all ties in the field, a template being used 
to spot the holes. Creosote oil was poured into all the 
holes as soon as bored. In 1911 a boring and adzing 
machine, manufactured by Greenlee Brothers, of 
Rockford, 111., was installed at the creosoting plant. 
This machine operated more or less successfully, but 
was not of sufficient capacity nor heavy enough in 



SPIKING AND GAGING 53 

construction to successfully handle heavy hardwood 
ties. Accordingly, two new and larger machines, 
manufactured by the same company, were installed 
the fore part of 1913. These two machines have op- 
erated successfully, and have, without difficulty, adzed 
and bored 5,000 ties per day. 

''During the year 1914, 523,935 ties were adzed 
and bored, the following data applying to this work: 

Highest number of ties adzed and bored in one day by 

one machine 3,324 

Average number of ties per day per machine while op- 
erating '. 3,011 

Average number of holes bored per bit per sharpening. . 1,500 

Average number of holes bored per bit 11,000 

"It would not be safe to figure over 2,500 ties per 
day per machine, or 62,500 ties per month, working 
single shift. 

"Eight men are required to operate one machine. 
In addition to these it is necessary to have a foreman, 
who is also a machinist, to keep the machines in re- 
pair and keep the knives and bits sharpened and 
ready to put on the machine when required. 

"The cost per tie for adzing and boring, includ- 
ing the interest on the investment, depreciation, op- 
eration, running repairs, electrical current for oper- 
ating the machines and trams, while the latter are 
taking ties to and from the machine, does not exceed 
11/2 ct. per tie. 

"The ties are carried to the machine on trams, 
which are dumped mechanically. The machine is fed 
by a conveyor. Two laborers place the ties on the 
conveyors. Two surfaces are adzed at the rail seat, 
exactly in the same plane, regardless of the shape of 
the tie. The depth of cut can be regulated as de- 
sired for perfect ties. The depth required to get all 
ties adzed perfectly for the full length of tie plates 
depends upon the irregularity of the ties. After 



^ 



54 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

passing the adzing heads, the tie is centered at each 
adzed surface by an overhead device to insure that 
the boring is done in the center of the adzed surfaces. 
The ties then pass by conveyor to trams and are ready 
for treatment. 

''These machines are automatic, and it is, there- 
fore, imperative that all parts continue to work prop- 
erly while the machines are running. Trouble with 
any one part puts the entire machine out of com- 
mission. 

"Cost data. The following data are a summation 
of the labor cost in connection with construction by 
the Lackawanna Railroad in New Jersey. 

"These figures cover the entire line, amounting to 
approximately 60 miles of main track: 

Cost of boring by hand in the field, 2,880 ties at 

$0,035 $ 100.80 

Cost of applying 11,520 screw spikes at $0.019 218.88 

Cost of laying track, less boring and placing of screw 

spikes at $0,085 per foot 448.80 

Cost of surfacing 5,280 ft. track at $0.17 per foot 897.60 

Average cost of labor per mile of main track $1,666.08 

"The above figures include the entire labor cost 
for putting the track in finished condition, but do not 
include any labor cost for the distribution of mate- 
rials. It will also be noted that the cost of boring 
ties in the field on the above work amounted to 3% 
cts. per tie, whereas the boring and adzing of ties, 
which is now done before treatment, has not cost to 
exceed li/^ ct. per tie. 

"Conclusions. Ties. (1) Treated beech, birch, 
gum, hard maple, elm and probably other similar 
woods may be safely used with oak on sharp curves 
where the traffic is especially heavy. 

"(2) From an economic standpoint, softwood ties, 
such as loblolly pine, should not be used on tracks of 



SPIKING AND GAGING 55 

excessive traffic, nor is it advisable to use them on 
sharp curves with moderately heavy traffic. An ex- 
pensive fastening device, such as an extra large and 
heavy tie plate or chair, securely fastened to the tie 
by fastenings independent of the spikes securing the 
rail, with sufficient room for rail movement on the 
tie plate, thus reducing the movement between plate 
and tie to a minimum, would probably make it prac- 
ticable to use softwood ties on straight track and light 
curves with moderately heavy traffic. It is not be- 
lieved, however, that loblolly pine, or similar ties, 
can be economically used with good results on heavy 
curves, regardless of the style of fastenings. 

''(3) As a rule, with woods which it will pay to 
treat, the poorer the quality of the timber the more 
elaborate and expensive the fastening must be if the 
mechanical life of the tie is made to approach the life 
of the treated timber. 

^'(4) The hardest track to maintain, from a tie 
standpoint, is on sharp curves, elevated for high- 
speed trains, where the speed of freight trains is re- 
stricted on account of grade conditions. Where traf- 
fic is especially heavy, such curves should be provided 
with the best of hardwood ties. 

"Tie Plates. (1) Tie plates should be used on all 
ties where screw spikes are used. 

'' (2) The tie plates should project well beyond the 
base of the rail on the outside and less on the inside 
to counteract the tendency of rail to roll out. 

"(3) As a rule, the required thickness of the tie 
plates will depend upon their projection beyond the 
base of the rail, and the traffic. 

"(4) Four holes should be provided for screw 
spikes, so that two extra holes will be available if 
needed. 

"(5) All holes should be punched from the top 
down and be as neat a fit for screw spikes as con- 



56 THE TPuACKMAN'S HELPER 

sistent, so as to make all screw spikes act together in 
resisting lateral pressure. The outside screw spikes 
should be so protected by the shoulder on the plate as 
to prevent the rail base from cutting into the screw 
spike neck; otherwise, in case of derailment and 
slewed ties, it will be found impossible to remove the 
spikes without first straightening the ties. 

"(6) A raised lug, or shoulder, both inside and 
outside of the rail base, should be provided to give 
support to the screw spike heads. This should as- 
sist in holding gage and materially reduces the 
breakage of spikes and damage to track in case of de- 
railment. 

''Spikes. (1) The size of screw spikes and the de- 
sign of the thread should be carefully considered be- 
fore a screw spike is adopted. Thereafter no changes 
should be made; otherwise the new screw spikes can- 
not be used in old holes without damaging the wood 
fiber. 

''(2) Where salt brine drippings are excessive, 
screw-spike heads must be made sufficiently large; 
otherwise there may be difficulty in the future in re- 
moving the screw spikes from the track, due to cor- 
rosion. During nearly five years' service no screw 
spikes have been found that were rusted within the 
tie, and there v/as no rust to speak of below the 
head, although some spike heads were rusted so badly 
that they could not be removed with the standard 
tool. 

"(3) The screw spike head should have tapering 
sides to prevent turning in the wrench socket after 
the size of the head has been diminished by rust. 

"(4) Any mechanical device for setting down 
screw spikes must automatically release when the 
screw spike is seated; otherwise the screw spike is 
apt to be damaged in case of hardwood or the wood 
fibers dest;royed in case of softwood. 



SPIKING AND GAGING 57 

^'(5) Very little trouble is experienced by screw 
spike heads breaking off, either on account of track 
movement or derailed equipment. The heads are, at 
times, damaged to considerable extent by derailments, 
but as a rule the spikes are not broken, nor is their 
holding-power affected. Where screw spikes are 
broken off, a device for extracting the broken portion 
from the old hole without injury to the wood threads 
would be a valuable appliance. 

" ( 6 ) "When screw spikes are fully seated, no fur- 
ther strain should be put on them, as this will tend 
to destroy the threads in the wood or injure the spikes. 

''Holes for screw spikes. (1) All ties should be 
bored at the treating plant before treatment. This 
can be done while the ties are being adzed, and not 
only insures that the holes are bored sufficiently deep, 
but provides for good treatment of all wood adjacent 
to the spike holes. 

"(2) Where the ties are bored before treatment, 
the track must be to proper gage before the ties can 
be placed. 

' ' ( 3 ) The holes for screw spikes should be of 
proper dimensions for the class of wood used, with 
due regard to the size of screw spike used. 

'' (4) A limited number of holes can be bored with 
one bit, after which its size will diminish so as to make 
it unfit for a hole of given size. 

" (5) Holes should be bored somewhat deeper than 
the length of the screw spike. There is no serious ob- 
jection to boring the holes clear through the ties. 

"Gage. (1) With oak, birch, hard maple, gum or 
longleaf yellow pine ties, gage can be maintained with 
a flat-bottom plate, using two screw spikes on straight 
line and two or three on curves. 

"(2) Heavy curves elevated for high speed, where 
heavy freight trains move at a slow rate of speed, are 
the hardest track to keep to gage. 



58 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

'' (3) Double spiking should be done on the inside 
of the rail. 

" (4) Not only is the lateral and vertical resistance 
of a screw spike greater than that of a cut spike when 
both are first applied, but the lateral and vertical re- 
sistance of a loose screw spike is considerably greater 
than the lateral and vertical resistance of a loose cut 
spike. 

''(5) When the threads in the tie are entirely de- 
stroyed, a screw lining (any one of several different 
varieties) may be used with good results. 

''General. (1) All ties should be bored and adzed 
before treatment. This insures good gage, a perfect 
bearing for the tie plates and good treatment under 
the rail seat and around the screw spike holes. 

''■(2) In placing screw spikes, they should be 
driven by hammer only sufficient to make the threads 
take hold. If rigid instructions are not carried out, 
laborers will continually over-drive spikes, and thus 
destroy the wood fibers near the top of the holes. 

'' (3) Screw spikes with flat-bottom plates on hard- 
wood ties will hold track to gage on sharp curves 
under heavy traffic. The holding power of screw 
spikes in hardwood ties, after more than four years' 
service, is not materially reduced. 

'' (4) No screw spikes have ever been found so loose 
that they could be easily pulled out of the holes, and 
but few have been discovered which could be as easily 
extracted as a newly-driven cut spike. In no case, 
except with loblolly pine ties, have the threads in the 
wood been found weakened. 

''(5) Screwspikes in maintenance work can be 
most economically used where all rail is of a standard 
pattern, so that regaging of track is not necessary in 
relaying rail. 

" ( 6 ) Slight irregularities of track when frozen are 
liable to throw an excessive strain on screw spikes 



SPIKING AND GAGING 59 

where there are but a few mixed with cut spikes. 

''(7) The best results with the screw spikes can 
be expected in new construction, and where the 
screw spikes in tie renewals predominate over cut 
spikes. 

''(8) In relaying rail, cut spikes should never be 
driven in old screw spike holes, if the holes are to be 
again used for screw spikes. 

" (9) No effort should be made to draw up a low 
tie with screw spikes when the roadbed and ballast 
are frozen solidly. 

'' (10) Screw spikes do not have to be continually 
set down, as do cut spikes, but should be gone over 
and set down properly after the plates are seated in 
the tie. 

^'(11) Flat-bottom plates with raised shoulders or 
lugs for the screw spike head make but little noise 
and do not rattle at all where ties are adzed before 
treatment. 

''(12) It cannot be expected that the full life of 
all creosoted softwood ties, such as loblolly pine, will 
be realized without providing expensive fastenings 
from the start, and then it will probably be necessary 
to add some further device at a later late. Probably 
the most practical and least expensive device will 
prove to be one or the other of the lining devices to 
be placed in worn-out spike holes. 

''(13) The use of screw spikes for the past five 
years has not made it necessary to increase the num- 
ber of section men per mile of track. 

"(14) Whether or not it will pay to use screw 
spikes will depend upon the cost of ties, their probable 
life and the amount of traffic." 

The foregoing data were abstracted from a paper 
by G. J. Ray, Chief Engineer, Delaware, Lackawanna 
& Western R. R., in the Bulletin of the American 
Railway Engineering Association for March, 1915. 



60 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

Gaging track. Section foremen should make an 
effort to gage all the track in their charge once a year. 
Early in the winter, and before general track work 
begins in the spring are the best times for this pur- 
pose, because then, on northern railroads, there is 
generally less of other work to be done than during 
the balance of the year, and it is best to utilize the 
period when track is frozen up to do gaging work 
and to apply tie plates. 

To gage track out of a face, the tools required are : — 

2 spike mauls, 

2 claw bars for pulling spikes, 

2 adzes for dressing a surface for the rail on the 
ties, 

2 standard gages, one for gaging the track and one 
for testing the gage of track before pulling the spikes, 

A good supply of track spikes and wood plugs to put 
in the old spike holes. 

If there are any bad places on the section, begin 
gaging these first, but if the average is the same 
throughout, it is best to work from one end contin- 
uously. 

When you arrive on the ground to commence work, 
take out all short kinks on the line side, and spike 
the rails to line, and have your men drive down all 
loose spikes on that side of the track before bringing 
the opposite side to gage. 

The foremen should take one gage and test all the 
track ahead of the men and mark all ties where spikes 
have to be pulled. Keep only enough spikes pulled 
on the gage side of the track to make, it handy to ad- 
just rail to place ahead of the gage, and have the 
track always ready to close up for the trains to pass. 

Have one of the men move the rails to place ahead 
of the gage with a lining bar, and do not try to draw 
it over with the spikes. 

Do not spoil or waste any of the old spikes that are 



SPIKING AND GAGING 61 

fit to be used a second time, and if they are oily or 
greasy throw a little dirt or sand on the head of the 
spike when you tack it into the tie; this will prevent 
the spike maul from slipping of^ the spike when driv- 
ing it. Measure the gage and be sure that it is of 
the length four feet eight and one-half inches, and if 
it is an iron gage and the end lugs touch the joint 
fastenings, grind or file them off, tapering so that 
nothing but the rail will touch the gage when placed 
across the track. 

If the gage on a section is not very bad, a foreman 
and two trackmen will do an average of one sixth of 
a mile per day, and with four trackmen a little more 
than double that amount of work. Gaging and spike- 
lining a section of track well during the winter, be- 
sides improving the track at that time, will enable 
the foreman to put a first-class line on the whole sec- 
tion during the following summer, and will materially 
lighten his other work. 

Loose spikes. A section foreman should be par- 
ticular to keep all spikes on his section driven down 
in the ties, and tight against the rails. Some foremen 
are not so careful in this respect as they should be; 
loose spikes in soft ties, especially where track is not 
level or on curves, leave the rail at the defective place 
liable to be turned over and cause an accident. You 
cannot keep track in good line with loose spikes, and 
in tamping loose ties when surfacing considerable 
time is lost holding up the ties. Care should be taken 
not to spring up the center of the rail, if of the lighter 
sections, and spoil the surface, thus making it neces- 
sary to go over the work a second time. 

Respiking ties. Whenever it is necessary to pull 
the spikes out of ties in the track, changing rails or 
at other repair work, and you find that the old spike 
holes in the ties will do for spiking the second time 
without changing the gage of the track, do not use 



62 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

a fresh place in the tie to drive the spike, but plug 
the old hole with a tie plug and drive the spike as it 
was before pulling. Ties soon rot and break off un- 
der the rail where spikes have been driven in differ- 
ent places, while the balance of the ties may be good, 
sound timber; this practice is termed "spike killing 
the ties" and is one that should be avoided. The in- 
creased use of tie plates of late years has obviated the 
necessity of gaging track so frequently on curves. 
Some roads use tie plates even on tangents to reduce 
the wear of the rail on the ties. 

Creosoting ties. For the last several years most 
railroads have realized the importance of creosoting 
or treating timber with oil preservative against de- 
cay, since by so doing the life of the tie is greatly in- 
creased, and with the general adoption of tie plates, 
of which there is a great variety on the market, each 
style having its own particular merit, ties cut from 
soft timber can be used to advantage and substantial 
track maintained, a result that was not possible years 
ago before the perfection of the tie plate. The creo- 
soting of ties at once suggests the use of tie plates on 
them to avoid the necessity of regaging and adzing 
any more of them than is absolutely necessary, since 
the penetration of the oil into the timber is somewhat 
limited, and if a tie is adzed after treatment the ef- 
fectiveness of the preservative is destroyed or greatly 
impaired. One of the late practices to overcome this 
difficulty is to have the ties planed for the rail-bear- 
ings before treatment. When screw spikes are used 
and holes are bored for them, they should be filled 
with creosote oil and left until all of the oil is ab- 
sorbed by the timber, which requires from four days 
to a week. For that reason it is best that this part 
of the work be done in advance of the time when the 
ties are to be applied.. Men accustomed to the use 
of the template and boring can prepare the ties for 



SPIKING AND GAGING 63 

application at the places along the track where they 
happen to be distributed. 

Boring ties by hand. Mr. C. W. Lane of the B. 
and 0. Railroad has described the boring of 100,000 
treated ties for use with screw spikes on a special 
form of tie plate, in the Railway Age Gazette, Nov. 
20, 1914. 

''The ties were bored at the road's treating plant 
at Green Spring, W. Va., the adzing being eliminated 
by using only sawn ties, and the work being done by 
small portable air motors capable of driving a %-in. 
bit 6 in. into the wood. 

''In the tie plant yard a standard gage track was 
paralleled by a narrow gage track 40 ft. away, and 
the sawn ties were loaded on flat cars in the yard, de- 
livered at one end of a rude skidway built between 
the standard and narrow-gage tracks, bored on a rough 
platform at the narrow gage end of the skidway, and 
loaded on trams to be run into the cylinders for pre- 
servative treatment. 

' ' The first skidway was in the form of a rude trestle 
work, sloping from a height of about 2^/^ ft. above 
the floor of a standard gage flat car to the level of 
the boring platform, which was at the height of the 
arms on the narrow gage tram cars. After complet- 
ing this skidway its cost seemed too high and a cheaper 
method of building was soilght. In building the next 
skidway a pile of ties that stood ready for treating 
was taken down to a level slightly below that of a 
flat car floor. Rails were then laid across this level 
crib-work of ties, and a boring platform erected at 
the narrow gage end at the level of arms on the nar- 
row gage tram cars, as before. This was a cheaper 
form of construction than the other skidway; but for 
the final one three 67-lb. rails were used at the height 
of a flat car floor and the arms on the trams, the rails 
being supported by simple crib-work of ties. The 



64 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



first or sloping skidway proved to be the most effi- 
cient, since thus the ties could be fed faster to men 
doing the boring. 

''After picking up, loading on flat cars and deliv- 
ering to the skidway the sawn ties, the places where 
the holes were to be bored were marked by using a 
template made of iron with holes exactly correspond- 



o o 


1 o o 


i 


O O 








/^ ^ r^ 


\ 






O O 




1 o o o 


\ 


o o 








/r. r. \ 



1 ^ 



^=n 



I £ 



3 \ n . . 



D 



jZ^ 



3 C 



Fis 



The Template Used in Boring Ties for Tie Plates 



1) 



ing to the holes in the tie plate that were to be used. 
Two of these templates, one for joint and one for in- 
termediate ties, were constructed according to the ac- 
companying sketch, Fig. 7. 

"The joint ties required four holes bored for each 
tie plate, while the intermediate ties needed only two 
holes for each plate. The little hook on one end of 
the template was hooked over one end of the tie and 
thus determined the distance from the end at which 
the holes were to be bored ; this was known as the 
'line end' of the tie. 

' ' Two men performed the . operation of marking 
the ties for boring. The template was first properly 



SPIKING AND GAGING 65 

placed ill position and then the men marked the places 
by driving" a hand punch through the holes in the 
template with a wooden mallet. One little detail was 
quickly worked out vdiich added greatly to the suc- 
cess of this part of the work. The punches were first 
made fast to a stiff spring which was in turn fastened 
to the template and which kept the punches out of 
the holes until struck. Instead of having to pick up 
and insert the marking punch in two or four holes 
and strike two or four blows with the mallet, accord- 
ing to the template used, one smart blow on the spring 
marked the whole set of holes. This little change nat- 
urally pleased the laborers and meant more output, 
which is only another way of saying 'more money for 
the men at a cheaper rate for the company.' 

"The ties having been marked were pushed along 
the skidway to the men who did the boring. The 
little air motors driving the boring-bits were sus- 
pended from a sort of walking-beam or old fashioned 
well-sweep, pivoted overhead so that it could move 
up or down, or in a horizontal direction, as desired. 
As the motors were too heavy to handle steadily all 
day they were counterbalanced by weights placed on 
these walking-beams. The bits with which the boring 
was done were fitted with stops to insure the holes 
being bored to the exact depth desired, which in this 
case was 6 in. 

"After the ties were bored they were immediately 
loaded on trams, stamped, checked, reported, and sent 
to the treating cylinders. 

"In any statement of costs the particular condi- 
tions surrounding each bit of work bear directly on 
the unit-price, and the following prices are given as 
fairly well suited to the locality where this work was 
done, but with a full understanding that cheaper or 
possibly higher rates might fit the situation in other 
places. It cost 1% cents per tie to sort out and load 



66 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

ties in the yard and % cent per tie to deliver them 
properly piled on the skidway. 

"A gang could bore 600 intermediate ties in 10 
hours. The two men marking and pushing ties to 
the boring-platform and the two men doing the bor- 
ing received 1% cents per tie divided equally. These 
four men earned then about $2.25 per 10-hour day 
per man. The two men loading trams received % 
cent per tie or $2.25 each for 600 ties. This made 
the total cost for an intermediate tie 4^/4 cents. 

''A gang could bore 400 joint ties in 10 hours. 
The rate for marking and boring these ties was 2I/4. 
cents per tie, but the men loading the trams received 
the same rate of % cent per tie because they could 
be loading other trams at regular yard rates during 
the time they had to wait for the slower moving joint 
ties to be bored. The total cost per joint tie was 
therefore 5 cents. A portion of these costs should not 
be included in the bill against adzing and boring by 
hand, because these same ties would, in the natural 
course of events, have to be picked up for treatment, 
which would cost something, varying at the different 
plants, say, approximately 1% cents per tie." 



Ill 

GENERAL SPRING WORK 

Overhauling track in spring". When the frost is 
leaving the ground in the spring, track foremen 
should remember to do all the little jobs which have 
been left over or neglected during the winter on ac- 
count of frost and snow. 

Clean up the station grounds and tracks, and pile 
up neatly all track or other material which may be 
scattered about the premises. 

Gather up all trash, cinders, straw and other com- 
bustible material and waste it on the narrow banks 
or burn it up if more convenient. Particular care 
should be taken to see that there is no dry grass 
around any timber bridges; if there is, have it re- 
moved promptly by skimming it off with a shovel or 
covering with dirt and cinders. Water barrels at 
bridges should be examined and replaced with new 
ones if necessary to provide proper protection against 
damage to property from fire. 

All switches and leads should be spiked to proper 
gage and line, and battered rails replaced by good 
ones; guard rails and frogs should be examined, and 
any defects in them remedied, or new ones ordered 
to replace them ; but this is something that must con- 
scientiously be done at all times regardless of weather 
conditions. 

Right of way fences should be examined and re- 
paired, especially in low places or where they %ross 
watercourses. Loose planks in wagon crossings 

67 



68 THE TRACKMA:N'S HELPER 

should be taken up and cleaned underneath, and 
ragged or split ends should be dressed with adze, re- 
newing as may be necessary, and then respiked to 
place. 

The approaches to all highway crossings should be 
filled up and fixed, so that teams will have no trouble 
in crossing the track. All fence posts, crossing signs, 
whistling posts and telegraph poles, should be put in 
correct position and tamped solid. 

Shimmed track should be watched and very thick' 
shims should be replaced by thinner ones as fast as 
the heaving goes down, and all shims should be re- 
moved from the track as soon as it is possible to spike 
the rails to proper surface. 

Soft spots in the roadbed will develop at this pe- 
riod of the year and must be carefully guarded 
against and repaired as fast as they develop. If im- 
practicable to keep them in condition so that the regu- 
lar speed of trains can be maintained, it is better to 
resort to the slow order than to permit any condition 
to go far enough to risk an accident. 

Washouts. Section foremen should keep a sharp 
lookout for washouts at all points on their sections, 
since the time of the year is now at hand when thaw- 
ing snow and rain combine to increase the quantity 
of water above the surface of the ground; and as the 
frost goes out of the ground but slowly at best there 
is always danger to a railroad from the accumulation 
of too much water at one place. This may damage . 
the track by undermining or washing away the road- 
bed, or by loosening the earth on hillsides along the 
track, or it may cause quantities of earth, stones, or 
trees to fall or slide upon the track. 

Ditches should be opened up and waterways cleared 
of all obstructions, and all track, trestles, bridges and 
culverts should be examined frequently, every day if 
necessary or, for that matter, as many times during 



GENERAL SPRING WORK 69 

the day as good judgment would dictate. Where 
there is likely to be any trouble the section foreman 
should remain out with his men day and night, and 
do all in his power to keep the track safe, always re- 
membering that upon the vigilance of himself and 
men may depend the lives of trainmen and passen- 
gers. 

In case of storms where the foreman has reason to 
apprehend danger, and his section extends both ways 
from his headquarters, he should send a man over the 
short end of it with instructions to reach the section 
limit as soon as possible, and to remain there and 
use the necessary signals to flag trains should he find 
anything dangerous on the way out. The foreman 
should go as rapidly as possible in the opposite direc- 
tion towards the other end of his section, leaving a 
man a sufficient distance ahead of the first break or 
washout to flag trains following, in case they should 
get over the other end of the section safely. The 
foreman should note the location and dimensions of 
all places needing repair, but he should not stop to 
do any work until the end of the section is reached, 
and the men have all been posted to remain and flag 
trains for all the dangerous places found. 

The foreman should then go to the nearest tele- 
graph office and make report, stating fully the condi- 
tion of the track on his section, giving location and 
dimensions of all breaks in roadbed or track, bridge 
and culvert numbers, number of bents destroyed in 
bridges, and any other information that would be 
valuable as a basis from which to calculate the amount 
of material or force necessary to put the track in good 
condition. 

This will insure the safety of trains, and enable 
the train dispatcher to hold them at convenient points 
until the track and bridges are repaired. 

After reporting the condition of his section the 



70 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

foreman can go to work repairing small breaks at 
points where a large gang of men could not work to 
advantage, but the men who are flagging at danger- 
ous places should not be called away until relieved 
by extra forces sent to protect and repair damage. 

Instances have occurred where foremen have 
stopped to repair the first bad spot found, and al- 
lowed trains to run into other bad places on their 
sections. It is always the foreman 's duty first to pro- 
tect those dependent upon him for safety, and then 
to notify superior officers of the condition of his sec- 
tion. If all of the track on the section is safe, send 
a report to that effect so that trains will not be de- 
layed. 

Repairing track. When track that has become 
rough or uneven is being repaired, all low places 
should be brought up to surface. Both rails on 
straight track should be level, and on curves the ele- 
vation should suit the degree of the curve. 

Lining old track. The track should be kept in per- 
fect line at all times. Nothing contributes more to 
the smooth riding of a train than a true line of rails. 
The foreman, when lining track, should do as much 
as possible with his back to the sun, because in that 
way he gets the best view of the rails. It is also nec- 
essary to look at the track line from the opposite 
direction, especially when lining across a sag, and 
also at ends of curves. A common fault in lining the 
last four or five rails on tangents is to throw the track 
too far out. Very few trackmen can line track per- 
fectly by going over it once unless they are experts 
and have perfect sight. Always stand as far away 
from the place to be lined as your sight will allow? 
and train your men to line by the motion of your 
hands when first putting the rails in place. By stand- 
ing too close to the place to be lined, you are likely 
to throw a swing to one side of the track. This is a 



GENERAL SPRING WORK 71 

common fault with many foremen. If jou have a 
section which the previous foreman left in bad line, 
show your ability by remedying its defects in that 
particular every time you have an opportunity. If a 
foreman has some track on his section which has set- 
tled down and is out of line, where the ground is wet 
or soft, and he has not the force of men necessary to 
move it in the usual way, the work of putting it to 
place can be done with a small gang by pulling the 
spikes out of two or three ties in a rail length at a 
time, and using the lining bars on top of the dead ties 
under the rails, thereby gaining a solid foundation to 
rest the bars upon and much more leverage than 
could be obtained with the bars in the ground. After 
the track has been lined to place, the dead ties can 
be shifted to their proper positions. 

Some of the instructions herein given as to track 
lining may seem unimportant to those who know it 
all, but it should be remembered that there are 
"kinks" in all trades and as far as suggestions may 
be made which would be useful to any one engaged 
in this line of business, reference will be made to 
them as occasion may occur. 

Tightening bolts. Some trackmen think that all 
bolts should be kept as tight as it is possible to make 
them. This is an error that any trackman may fall 
into until he is convinced to the contrary. There are 
several kinds of nut locks for track bolts in use on 
the railroads throughout the United States, the ma- 
jority of which are devised for the purpose of locking 
the nut, and at the same time allowing the rails to 
contract or expand after the bolts are tightened with- 
out danger of breaking them. The section foreman, 
and his men sometimes tighten up all the bolts on a 
section, even if they can make only a quarter of a 
turn with the wrench; in fact, many foremen add 
pieces to the ends of the track wrenches, so that the 



72 THE TEACKMAN'S HELPER 

men may be able to get more leverage, and as a result 
of their labor everything on a joint in the shape of a 
nut, lock, or washer, has every particle of spring or 
elasticity taken out of it, and the bolts are broken by 
the action of traffic or by the expansion and contrac- 
tion of the rails due to changes in temperature. Thus 
what should ordinarily be serviceable material is ren- 
dered useless by such treatment. A joint with either 
four or six bolts, and with a spring nut lock on each 
bolt, should have the nuts tightened enough to get the 
full force of the resistance of the material used for a 
washer between the nut and the angle bar. A com- 
fortable twist of the track wrench with the hand, after 
the nut is run up to place will be found sufficient 
force, to use when tightening bolts. When bolts are 
tightened in this way and there are angle bars or 
patented joints slot-spiked to the ties, all danger of 
the bolts or rails being injured is avoided, and the 
rails can contract and expand without track creep- 
ing. To prevent trackmen from breaking bolts when 
tightening them, track wrenches should not be too 
long, and the use of pieces of pipe on the end to in- 
crease the leverage should be prohibited. 

However, with the large sized bolts in use and with 
the design of heavy joint fastenings lately developed, 
the length of track wrench has been increased ac- 
cordingly, and a standard of 36 in. is not unusual. 
It should not be understood from the above that all 
the trouble experienced is from keeping bolts too 
tight, for such is not the case, but the foreman should 
be impressed with the importance of giving this work 
proper attention. When, for instance, new rails and 
angle bars are installed, they are ordinarily covered 
with a light scale or rust, due to lying out in the 
weather for some time before being used, and even if 
the bolts are applied so that the joint is substantially 
tight at first the scale soon wears off by the action of 




Fig. 8. Various Types of Nut Locks 



73 



74 THE TRACKMAK'Si HELPER 

traffic and it becomes necessary to go over and tighten 
the nuts to complete the seating of joints up to the 
rail. If for any reason this second tightening is neg- 
lected, the joints become loose and it is not a great 
while before the threads of the bolts become damaged 
on account of the play, with the result that the same 
bolts cannot be further tightened and must be re- 
moved and others applied. A great many bolts have 
been damaged in this way and money spent in pur- 
chasing others, where a little labor expended in the 
right direction would have avoided it all. 

All sudden changes of temperature affect the bolts 
on account of the expansion or contraction of the 
rails. This is most noticeable in the spring and fall 
of the year. Foremen should not neglect to tighten 
up the bolts at any time when it is necessary. Al- 
ways remember that loose bolts make low joints and 
increase the labor of track repair. 

Nut locks. There are a number of good nut locks 
on the market today, each possessing particular merits, 
which permit of keeping the bolts tightened up with 
a minimum amount of labor, and prevent excessive 
wear of the joint fastenings. The nut locks illus- 
trated in Fig. 8 are in very general use and are well 
adapted for rail joints. 

Line on bridges. Section foremen should be par- 
ticular to keep the rails on all bridges in good line, as 
well as to keep a good line and surface on the ap- 
proaches. 

Repairing bridges. All repair work on bridges 
should be done by bridge men or those in charge of 
such work. Section foremen should not attempt to do 
any work on bridges for which they have not the 
proper tools or the necessary practice. Any work that 
is necessary in an emergency should be done and a re- 
port of it made to the proper authority, as to anything 
further that may be considered necessary. 



IV 

DRAINAGE 

Ditchingf. In order to ditch a cut properly, meas- 
urements should be taken from the rail to the bot- 
tom of the face of the cut at different places along it. 
Ascertain at what average distance from the track 
it will be best to have the back of the ditch. This is 
very important, because in the majority of cuts on a 
railroad the line of face is more or less irregular and 
not truly parallel to the track, and the best distance 
from the track for the back of a ditch is that which 
will give a good ditch without moving too great an 
amount of material. After a foreman has decided 
how wide the ditch should be, he should line it with 
the shovel or drive stakes along the back of it for his 
men to work by, otherwise they will be apt to make 
it crooked. Nothing is more unsightly than a crooked 
ditch, and it will fill up more rapidly than a straight 
one. The ditch should always be a little deeper at 
the lower end of the cut, and gradually grow shal- 
lower as it goes up grade. If you ditch parts of two 
or three cuts on your section at different times, each 
of the cuts will have some time to drain off, the mate- 
rial in the ditches will be dryer and in better condi- 
tion to work, and men can thus do more than if kept 
in one very wet cut all the time. Always carry the 
discharge end of a ditch so far away from the track 
that there will be no danger of water from the ditch 
washing out the embankment under the track. A 

75 



76 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

time of the year should be selected when the weather 
is not favorable for other track work. 

Form of ditches. The width of a cut and the slope 
of its face on each side of the track must always gov- 
ern, to a certain extent, the distance from the track 
rails to the back of a ditch. All railroad cuts should 
be opened so wide when the track is first laid that 
there will be room to make all ditches a uniform dis- 
tance from the rail. A ditch should be deep enough 
to thoroughly drain the track, and the distance from 
the rail to the back of it should be in proportion to 
the depth of the ditch, giving the water an easy fall 
from the track and free passage through the ditch, 
so that there will be no danger of its washing the 
shoulder of the grade, or undermining the track. 
Deep ditches close to the track in a cut sometimes 
weaken the foundation and wash away the ballast out- 
side the ties, especially where the ballast is of sand 
or gravel. The bottom of a ditch should be from 
eight to ten feet from the rails, where the width of 
grade will allow it, and should i3e two feet below the 
bottoms of the ties. 

Grade of ditches. If a cut is level throughout its 
length, the ditch will necessarily be deeper at the ends 
than at the middle. Where the grade of a cut de- 
scends toward the ends from the center the average 
depth of the ditch may be the same throughoiit the 
cut. Trackmen should always begin to ditch at the 
lower end of a wet cut, and finish up as they go. 
The piece ditched every day will help to drain off the 
water behind. The principle governing this is that a 
ditch must have a fall in the direction toward which 
the water is to drain. 

Cleaning out ditches. Old ties or other obstruc- 
tions should never be allowed to remain in the ditches 
along the track. They should be cleaned out thor- 
oughly every fall and the last thing before winter 



DRAINAGE 77 

sets in, so that during the continuance of the spring 
rains, or while snow is melting, the water can pass 
off freely without injuring the track. 

Protective ditches. A small ditch made with a 
plow along the top of the side of a deep cut, and near 
the edge of its face, will carry off the surface water 
and protect the side of the cut from washing into the 
track ditches and filling them up too rapidly. 

If the track through a cut has a uniform grade ad- 
vantage may be taken of it to turn any surface water 
flowing near the upper end down through the ditch 
and thus keep it scoured out. There is no danger of 
injury to the track if the amount of water flowing to 
the upper end of the cut is not too large. 

A ditching template. A simple device like that 
shown in Fig. 9 is very handy to use when ditching. 

d A 




Fig. 9. Ditching Template 

It can be made as follows : Use for the long piece A 
a straight edge 1x4 inches, 12 feet long. For the 
short cross-piece B use a piece of board 1x3 inches, 
four feet long. On one end of the long piece fix a 
piece of sheet iron, C, twelve or fourteen inches long, 
double it, and bolt the ends of it through the wood, 
leaving a space through which the short piece, B, can 
be passed freely. A hole should be bored through 
the sheet iron, so that a set screw or a bolt can be 
used to secure the short piece at any distance from 
either end of it. The cross piece, B, of the ditching 
rule should be set so that the back of it will be at the 
proper angle for the back of the ditch, and upon one 
side of it should be marked the distances by which to 



78 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

regulate the depth of the ditch. When in operation, 
one end of this ditching rule, d, should rest upon the 
nearest track rail, and at the other end the material 
should be removed from the face of the cut, until the 
cross piece, B, rests in proper position to shape the 
ditch. Then, by trying the spirit level on top of the 
longer piece, and adjusting the cross piece to the re- 
quired depth, the bottom level of the ditch can be 
carried uniformly throughout the length of the cut, 
if the track is in true surface, without any change in 
the rule. The template should be fitted to place at 
distances of a rail length or less, and the men will 
have a guide to work by, and can cut the ditch cor- 
rectly without any additional labor, A marker can 
be put on the long piece, which will show where the 
ditch slope commences outside the ends of the track 
ties. If it be desirable to lower the ditch, say twelve 
inches in as many rail lengths, it is only necessary 
to let the cross piece, B, down one inch every thirty 
or thirty-three feet, at the same time keeping the 
long piece always level on the top. In like manner, 
by shortening up the cross piece the ditch bottom can 
be gradually raised or made more shallow. Wlien 
constructing ditches in accordance with the standards 
prescribed by the various railroads, of course the fig- 
ures as taken from such standards should be used in 
setting the template to shape the ditch. E represents 
the difference in elevation between top of rail and 
sub-grade. 

Channels for conveying the water away from the 
track should be sufficiently large to perform the duty 
required of them during a freshet as well as when 
only an ordinary amount of water passes through. 
At all marshy or low places where water might remain 
standing alongside of the track enough openings 
should be made to insure a solid dry roadway. The 
embankment should also be rip-rapped along its sides 



DRAINAGE 79 

if there is any possibility of strong winds or rapid 
streams forcing the water against it and washing the 
material away. 

Where musk rats are plentiful and cause damage 
to the track by burrowing under it, a heavy coating 
of cinders and slag along the sides of the embank- 
ment is a most effectual protection against their dep- 
redations. The cinders form an alkali in the water 
that tastes bad, besides which they are too sharp for 
the animals to burrow through, forming thus an ad- 
mirable remedy against their ravages. 

In deep, wet cuts where the material has a tend- 
ency to slide, the roadbed should be widened out much 
more than at any other point, and the face of the side 
of the cut should be made with a very gradual in- 
cline from the top of the cut to the ditch. If it will 
grow some grass, all the better. 

The work of widening cuts and roadbeds can be 
done at less cost and to better advantage before the 
track is laid than afterwards. 

The bottoms of ditches that run alongside the track 
through a cut should be carried not less than ten feet 
from the rails on each side, and as far below the bot- 
toms of the track ties as it is possible to have them. 
They should retain a nicely proportioned incline from 
the end of the ties to the ditch. Open ditches or til- 
ing which are too close to the track, or not deep 
enough below the track ties, are only a makeshift 
and a hindrance to maintaining a good, dry track. 
Coarse stone makes a good foundation in a wet cut, 
if laid beneath the ballast in which the ties are im- 
bedded, but can be dispensed with where the track can 
be raised above the mud without spoiling the surface 
or grade standard. In fact, this latter is the most 
economical method (after a track has been laid) of 
draining a track and making a good ditch at the 
same time. Briefly stated, to drain the track in a 



80 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

cut, the same conditions must exist, as nearly as pos- 
sible, as where the track is laid in ballast on a good, 
solid fill or embankment, several feet above the sur- 
face of the ground. 

The incline of the sides of the embankment should 
be a natural slope, with no abrupt angles. No earth 
embankment can be prevented from washing without 
artificial means where the incline is so steep that vege- 
tation will not grow upon it. 

Pipe culverts. Cast iron pipe from 12 in. to 48 
in. in diameter provides a splendid means of passing 
the water from one side of the roadbed to the other. 
Concrete pipe is replacing this to some extent now. 

Where the conditions are favorable stone or con- 
crete arches should be installed with good, strong, 
side walls, a paved floor and wing walls at both sides 
of the embankment, to take the place, as far as pos- 
sible, of all small wooden bridges. 

Grading cuts. "Wet, soft cuts on railroads are a 
great annoyance, and very expensive for the com- 
panies that are troubled with them. They often ne- 
cessitate increasing the section force or organizing 
ditching gangs, and require extra quantities of bal- 
last. 

In the spring and summer the track in wet cuts is 
rough ; in winter the track in bad cuts heaves up and 
requires considerable labor and expense to keep it 
safe, and owing to the frequent spiking and the na- 
ture of the material in which they are laid the ties 
soon decay and have to be renewed. In new railroad 
construction this can often be remedied by widening 
the roadbed in proportion to the depth of the cut, or 
in conformity with the nature of the material through 
which the cut is made instead of following out the 
ironclad rule which makes the width of the roadbed 
the same in all cuts. A practical and experienced 
man should have charge of the grading work on a 



DKAINAGE 81 

new road, with authority to widen the roadbed, or 
ease the side slopes of any cut, in a manner that will 
protect the track from the effects of heavy rains or 
a springy bottom. 

Surface ditches should be put along the tops of all 
cuts to run off the water at the ends, and to prevent 
it coming in on the track over the faces of the cuts. 

Drainage of high fills. Mr. Earl Stimson, Main- 
tenance of Way Engineer on the B. & 0. R. R., has 
described in Ry. Eng. & M. of W. the drainage of two 
fills which gave a good deal of trouble on account of 
settling, on the Baltimore Division of that road, 
known as the Orangeville Fill and the first fill east 
of Eldridge. 

The description is as follows: 

''Before the work of drainage was commenced, it 
was thought that the sub-grade had settled under tlie 
track, forming water pockets. The fills being of im- 
pervious clay, the water could not drain off, and grad- 
ually softened the material, causing the fills to settle 
slowly, the material working out at the base. 

' ' However, when the drainage work was commenced 
it was found that this condition did not exist, as will 
be seen by the cross section which represents typical 
conditions in both places. The Orangeville fill is 
4,400 feet long, but only 200 feet have given any 
trouble on account of slippage. At this point the 
fill is 25 feet high with the slip all on the westbound 
side. The eastbound track requires no more atten- 
tion than other points with a fair sub-grade. 

"The original ground surface is of good support- 
ing material so that the settlement could not be at- 
tributed to a poor foundation. The first section cut 
in the fill was cut down to the original ground to de- 
velop any water pockets if they existed. This section 
was not, however, cut through the entire width of 
the fill, as the material under the eastbound track 



82 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



was found dry and in good stable condition. From 
time to time, cinders have been unloaded at this point 
and used to bring the fill up to normal sub-grade ele- 
vation and fill out the shoulder. The first section cut 
showed the cinder extending to a depth of 12 feet 
below the top of rail. Underlying the cinder was a 
layer of slippery saturated clay, about a foot in thick- 
ness, upon which the cinder moved toward the toe 



Cross 




'Z^/// 

?^;^///i%> 



Action Looking East 
T(jpic3l Cross Section Oranqeville nil 



Cinders 



^Mm 



Cross 
Drains 









Saturated 
Clay 



Fig. 10. 



Original Ground 
Section Lookmq East 
Tijpical Cross Section Dkridge rill. 

Cross Sections of Two High Fills on the 
B. & 0. R. R. 



of the fill. Although it was not marked, there was 
evidently some movement of this clay which would 
account for the depth of the cinder under the track. 
''It is probable that this condition is the result of 
water pockets. The pumping action of passing 
trains has worked the shoulder of the fill down also, 
leaving no defined pocket and forming the section 



DRAINAGE 83 

shown. Under the layer of saturated clay, the mate- 
rial rapidly became dryer and assumed normal con- 
ditions. 

' ' Five cross drains were constructed at points where 
the settlement was most marked. The first section 
cut having developed the fact that there was no water 
pocket in the fill, the subsequent cross drains were cut 
only to a depth sufficient to reach solid material below 
the layer of saturated clay. No tile was used, the 
trenches being back filled with cinder. 

"The fill east of Eldridge is 1,100 feet long with 
a maximum height of about 30 feet. In this case the 
settlement was on the eastbound track and for prac- 
tically the entire length of the fill. Conditions were 
found to exist here as at Orangeville, except that there 
was more water, and as at Orangeville, no water pock- 
ets were found. Eighteen cross drains were con- 
structed at intervals of about 50 feet. The excavat- 
ing was cut through a wet material, and back filled 
with stone and cinder without tile. The cross sec- 
tions illustrate the conditions as they existed and the 
cross drains as constructed. 

' ' The cost of the work at Orangeville was : 

Labor $ 711.55 

Material 357.37 



Total $1V068.92 

''The unit cost of $213.75 per cross drain is high, 
owing to the amount spent on the first drain, which 
was in the nature of an exploration. 

' ' The cost of the work at Eldridge was : 

Labor '. $ 486.52 

Material 550.00 

Total $1,036.52 



84 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

''The unit cost of $57.38 per drain is probably a 
better average on which to base future estimates for 
work of this character. 

''During the progress of the work, the track was 
supported on twelve by twelve inch timbers, placed 
under the ties, the excavation being made four feet 
wide, closely sheeted and cross braced. No piling 
was used to support the tracks. 

"When it was found that water pockets did not 
exist, it was thought that the cross drains would ac- 
complish little, but contrary to expectations, the re- 
sults obtained have been most satisfactory, the bene- 
ficial effects being noticeable almost immediately upon 
the completion of the work, and the stability of the 
fills increasing rapidly as they dried out. 

"Results: A recent inspection has been made at 
Orangeville and Eldridge. The embankment for the 
last track built has slid down the slope of the original 
embankment so far that not much of the original 
material is left. The second track is now supported 
mostly by cinders. In time of dry weather this holds 
itself in fair equilibrium, but in wet weather the water 
running down the slope of the old embankment car- 
ries the new with it. The embankment seems to have 
thoroughly dried out at the point where the two 
ditches were dug to the bottom. After the first deep 
trenches were dug it was decided to dig only shallow 
ditches on the top of the embankment, digging them 
down as far as any moisture was found. These, of 
course, under the conditions, effectually drained the 
water which was standing upon the top of the old 
embankment, but did not help the track upon the new 
embankment. 

"At the point where the deep excavations were 
made, the slip seems to have been cured, but where 
the shallow ones were dug, conditions are practically 
as bad as before. The ballast at the former point is 



DRAINAGE 85 

still in line and the track is standing up dry and 
solid, but in all other points it has settled badly and 
destroyed the line of the ballast leaving the one point 
where the deep excavation was made higher than the 
adjoining track. 

^' The conditions at these two points would indicate 
that the proper course to take to fully overcome the 
difficulties would be to dig deep excavations to the 
bottom of the fill and at intervals of about 50 feet 
throughout the entire length of the slip and fill with 
coarse rock and cinder." 



V 

SUMMER TRACK WORK 

Renewal of ties. The month of May in northern 
climates is the season when the work of general track 
repair should be pushed steadily. Track is becoming 
dry and any track that has heaved during the winter 
is generally settled back to its old bed. The time for 
this varies with the location as to latitude and general 
climatic conditions. In the North Atlantic States the 
frost ordinarily leaves the ground in the latter part 
of March or early April and then the danger of track 
spreading is very great and should be carefully 
guarded against. If there are any poor ties in track 
they will show up at this time, and any weak spots 
that develop on this account should be attended to 
at once. 

As soon as the worst parts of the section have been 
attended to in this regard, the foreman should go 
over and correct the line and general surface, which 
should engage his attention practically for the re- 
mainder of the month of April so that by the first 
of May he can begin at one end of his section the 
work of renewing those ties which are scheduled for 
renewal during the season. This work should be 
prosecuted continuously and should be interrupted 
only to correct line and surface as necessary. The 
tie renewals should have preference at this time, for 
then the ballast, if cinders or gravel, has not become 
hard or baked, as it will be in July and August. In 
addition to making better progress with the work on 

86 



SUMMER TEACK WORK 87 

account of this condition, the weather is usually pleas- 
ant, full efficiency can be secured from labor, and 
every tie put in at this time in ballast of whatever 
kind will have a good chance to become solid by the 
fall of the year. In other words, the track is now 
undergoing' such repairs as may be necessary to put 
it in proper condition for the coming winter. The 
more those in charge of the work will consider the 
fact that winter is surely coming, the better the track 
will be. 

Species of track ties. The species of wood in rail- 
road ties are of great variety, ranging from cedar 
and other soft woods to lignum vitfB. The majority 
are, however, of cedar, cypress, hemlock, pine, chest- 
nut and oak, and are used according to the character 
of the country through which the railroad runs. 

Yellow pine ties are now secured in the South and 
brought in large numbers by rail and boat to help 
out the deficiency of other classes of timber in the 
states farther north. Cedar ties give a very long 
life in the track, as do chestnut, but if used without 
tie plates are cut very fast by the base of the rail. 
It is not uncommon to find chestnut ties in the track 
that have been there for sixteen years, and cedar ties 
that have given twenty years ' service ; however, cedar 
and other very soft wood ties cannot be trusted on 
curves without tie plates to resist the tendency of the 
rails to spread. White oak ties are the best and make 
the most substantial track, their average life being 
from twelve to fourteen years. Red oak ties last 
about four years on the ordinary railroad, but on 
street railways, where covered up and not exposed, 
they are quite suitable and give long service. 

The usual size of ties for main track is seven inches 
thick, nine inches wide and eight feet six inches long 
(7" x9" x8' 6") ; for side tracks they are six inches 
thick, eight inches wide, and eight feet long (6"x8" 



88 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

x8'0"). The latter class are also adapted for use 
on all main tracks with, light traffic and are often 
used with great success under heavy traffic. In size 
they vary according to the specifications of the par- 
ticular company for which they are being cut. 

Timber cross-ties can be divided into two classes, 
and these in turn can be subdivided as follows : 

I. Hewn. 

(a) Quarter tie. 

(b) Slab tie. 

(c) Half tie. 

(d) Uneven tie. 

(e) Pole tie. 

II. Sawn. 

(a) Quarter tie. 

(b) Slab tie. 

(c) Half tie. 

(d) Pole tie. 

Fig. 11 shows, at upper part, (1) : A quarter tie, 
from a tree quartered into 4 ties, having a little heart, 
which, if placed in track with heart up, will check 
quickly and if placed with heart down, as shown at 
(1-a), the heart is likely to be split away from the 
rest of the tie when the spikes are driven into it. 
(2) : A slab tie, from a tree halved into two ties, 
and the same results occur as from quarter ties ; both 
(1) and (2) when placed in the track, heart down, 
give sapwood as support for the rail, which will be 
quickly cut into. (3) : A half tie, which requires 
considerable care in tamping or it will become canted. 
(4) An unevenly hewn tie with a narrow face on one 
side, which, if placed up, will very soon be cut into 
by the rail base, as shown at (4-a). (5) and (6) : 
''Pole ties," so-called, which are the best for use in 



SUMMER TRACK WORK 



89 



the track, owing to the heart being at the center, with 
sapwood on the outer corners only. These, when 
placed in track, will give longer life and allow cor- 
rect spiking for gage and to prevent creeping, and 

I 2 3 4 5 6 



Quarter Slab 
Tie Tie 



Half Uneven Pole Pole 
Ti^ HewnTie Tie' Tie 




l-a 2-a 3-a ^-a 5-a 6-a 
Tie Sections of Various Kinds- 




While Oak Cedar Chestnut Chesmut Chestnut 
Typical Ties in Plan and Section. 

Fig. 11, Tie Sections of Various Kinds and Typical Ties 
in Plan and Section 



will not require so soon the use of plates on tangents, 
whereas the other ties should have tie plates, if sap 
is placed up, to prevent their being cut into. 

In the lower part of Fig. 11 is shown, first, a white 



90 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

oak tie, a cedar, a chestnut, a narrow-faced chestnut 
and a wide faced chestnut tie. It will be noticed 
from the shading, which indicates the amount of wear 
from the base of the rail, that the white oak tie is 
cut but little, the cedar and narrow-faced chestnut the 
most. If ties thus placed were of different wood or 
of different face this would occasion an uneven bear- 
ing for the rail when the wheels are upon it. 

There is also an objection to narrow and wide faced 
ties being placed near each other, especially in track 
under an overhead bridge, owing to the fact that 
frost will hang under the wide-faced ties and come 
out quickly under the narrow-faced ones, making un- 
even riding track in the spring. Above the sections 
in the lower part of Fig. 11 is shown a rail spiked to 
the ties showing the tie face. 

In the tamping of track, a hewn tie can be worked 
more rapidly to a good bed than a sawn tie. Other 
things being equal, a railroad which is not compelled 
to renew its track ties for nine or ten years after they 
are laid, has an immense advantage over a road that 
must renew its ties once in five years. The latter 
road must figure into its expense account almost 
double the cost for material, besides the additional 
track labor necessary to do the work, and during the 
interval it cannot have as good a track as the former. 
Ties sawn square will rot sooner and break more eas- 
ily than hewn ties, and are generally too small to 
give a good bearing surface. Pole ties, with a face 
on two sides, made by sawing slabs from them, are 
generally good and preferable to quarter ties or those 
split out of very large logs, because the wood of a 
big tree is more brittle than that of the younger 
growth. A well hewn pole tie, with a face on two 
sides, eight or ten inches wide, is preferable to all 
others for track purposes. 

Dimensions of ties. The following table shows the 



SUMMER TRACK WORK 91 

sizes of ties specified for a first class line, the eight 
and a half foot ties being used on main tracks and 
the eight foot ones in sidings and yards, but in some 
cases the eight foot ones are used on main track of 
branch lines if the traffic is not so heavy as to war- 
rant the use of the larger class. 
Tie sizes. 

Length Kind Thickness 

81^ feet Pole ties 7 inches 



81/. 


Split 




7 


81/2 


Saw 




7 


8 


Pole 




6 


8 


Split 




6 


8 


Saw 




6 



Face 


First Class 


Second Class 


7 inches 


6 inches 


9 " 


7 " 


9 " 


8 " 


7 " 


6 " 


8 " 


7 " 


8 " 


7 " 



Face must not be less than specified. Variations 
in thickness of one-quarter inch under or over 
will be permitted and, in length, one inch under or 
over. 

The life of a track tie is not altogether dependent 
upon the kind or quality of timber used. The same 
kind of tie will last longer in the North where the 
ground is frozen all winter, than in the South, where 
the process of decay goes on uninterruptedly; there 
is also a marked difference in the effect on ties of an 
extremely wet or dry climate and the amount of traf- 
fic over them. If the length of ties equalled twice 
the gage of a track, they would give much more sup- 
port to the rail. As it is, the ties receive their main 
support from the inside and only a proportion from 
the outside ends. This condition has a tendency to 
develop swings and rough track. If the rail received 
as much support from the outside as from the inside 
and the support provided by the ballast were uni- 
form, the ends of the ties would not be so likely to 
spring up and down under a passing train and there 
would consequently be no space between the ends of 
the ties and the ballast beneath for water to get into. 



92 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPEE 

but the ties would rest solidly on their foundation 
from end to end. 

Distribution of new ties. In renewing ties by the 
''spotting method" as is the general practice and not 
"out of face," each mile of track will require ap- 
proximately the same number of ties each year, but 
of course if track has recently been ballasted or relaid 
with new rail and the tie renewals have been gener- 
ous where the new rail was laid only light renewals 
will be necessary for the next few years. Ties to be 
used during the season may come for distribution the 
winter before but there is no difficulty in approximat- 
ing the number required in each mile of track, and 
arrangements should be made to distribute them ac- 
cordingly, that they may be available for use without 
rehandling. If there are enough cars of ties to make 
a day 's work for a work train, all the better, otherwise 
a few cars of ties and some other work may go to make 
up a train. In any event, it is economical to get the 
ties to the point where they are wanted in the first 
place. If there are not ties enough on hand to war- 
rant the ordering out of a work train, the service of 
a way freight can usually be secured to release cars 
promptly. 

When new ties are unloaded from cars the foreman 
should see that any of them that are too close to the 
track are removed to a safe distance immediately 
after the passage of the unloading train. 

Piling ties. The usual practice is to put fifty ties 
in a pile. Some roads place them in square piles 
while others pile them in pyramids or A-shaped piles 
at right angles to the track. See Fig. 12 for Correct 
and Wrong Methods of Piling Ties, indicating 
P. R. R. practice, as given in the Ry. Age Gazette, 
Feb. 19, 1915. 

Tie inspection. Large railroads usually have a sys- 
tem of marking for the foreman the ties which are 



SUMMER TRACK WORK 



93 



to be renewed on his section during the season. This 
is done early in the spring or as soon as the frost is 
out of the ties by the tie inspector, who goes over 
every mile of track and marks with white paint the 
rail over the ties that it is considered necessary to 
renew. Ties that are questionable are tested with a 
pick to ascertain the extent to which they are decayed 
and a record is kept of the number to be renewed in 
each mile or quarter mile, showing how many are on 
curves and how many on tangent. The record is 




Improper Methods. 
Fig. 12. Methods of Piling Ties 

kept on blanks provided for the purpose, and know- 
ing the total number of ties in track in each mile the 
percentage of ties renewed each year is readily as- 
certained. If the foreman makes any change in the 
number renewed from those spotted he makes a re- 
port giving the reason therefor. Also, the number 
of new ties on hand in each mile available for use 
is tabulated and from this information the supervisor 
or roadmaster knows how many additional ties 
must be distributed to complete the renewals. The 
tie inspection work is usually delegated to an experi- 



94 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

enced foreman whose judgment is good in this line, 
and necessary assistance is furnished him while on 
this work temporarily, but some roads insist on the 
supervisor doing it personally so that he will be thor- 
oughly acquainted with the tie conditions on his sub- 
division. When practicable it is best to have the sec- 
Aon foreman along, too. 

Renewing ties. When putting ties under the 
track the foreman should never allow the men to dig 
out any more than is necessary to allow the tie to 
go under easily. The old bed should not be disturbed 
if the new tie will fit. A good method for putting in 
ties where two together are to be renewed is to dig 
out between the two and on each side of the track, a 
little deeper than the bed of the ties, remove the spikes 
from the old ties, knock the old ties into the hole, and 
pull out. Pull the new tie into the same hole from 
the opposite side of the track, if it is of about the 
right size, and let a man on each side of the track 
slide the tie into its bed, keeping it close up to the 
rail until in its place. 

Tie gage. New ties should always be spaced 
evenly; they should be square across the track and 
laid so that the center of the tie will coincide with 
the center of the track ; this will leave the ends so that 
they will not line up perfectly one with the other on 
account of the slight variation in length of ties, but 
this is hardly enough to be noticeable and there is 
considerable question as to which looks better after 
all, a track with ties evenly lined at one end and 
ragged on the other or where the variation is the same 
in the line of both ends. It is best to have wheel 
loads supported equally at the two rails and this is 
best accomplished by having the ties centered. Also, 
where, for instance, S^/o ft. ties are adopted for re- 
newal on a line already equipped with 8 ft. ties, a 



SUMMER TRACK WORK 



95 



presentable appearance still obtains if all ties are 
uniform with the center line of track. 

In order to get the tie into this position without 
any extra liieasuring, a tie gage or stick say 1" x 2'' 
should be provided which has marked upon it the 
length of the tie being used and the locations of the 
two rails ; it is then only necessary to lay the gage on 





^ 



I" 



4 



fi 



a'-o" 



a'- 6^' 



Fig. 13. 



Made of l"x4" Board 



the tie to be installed and mark with chalk the loca- 
tion of the base of each rail and see that the marks 
so made come to the rails when the tie is being spiked. 
The tie gage saves an endless amount of work both 
in renewals and especially in construction of new 
tracks where a man marks the position of the rails 
as fast as the ties are distributed out ahead, thus 
greatly helping the spikers. 



96 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

Selecting joint ties. Under joints where angle 
bars are used, put in two well-hewn ties of about 
equal size, and have each tie come well under the 
angle bars, as this is the first consideration. The 
other ties are spaced to suit the joint ties. 

The number of ties used per rail length depends 
somewhat on the size of the ties, whether the general 
run of them is large or not. A good way to roughly 
space ties is to have them just far enough apart to 
enable a track shovel to be passed between them when 
held sideways. This will give about the proper space 
for tamping. Where there are wide spaces between 
existing ties, an extra one should be put in and the 
adjoining ties shifted as necessary to divide up the 
space. For a thirty-three foot rail length, an aver- 
age of eighteen good sized ties makes good track. 
Ties sawn square should not be put under a rail joint 
if it can be avoided. When putting in ties a foreman 
should arrange his gang in such a way that all can 
be working at once, having each man do the work he 
is best suited to perform. When working a large 
number of men he ought to have tools enough to work 
them in separate gangs, because in this way more 
work can be done in proportion to the number of men 
employed. However, with section forces making tie 
renewals it is not often advisable to divide up the 
gang, but if track is in poor condition as to ties other 
gangs can be added as necessary. 

Finish as you go. The tie renewals when once 
started should be prosecuted continuously and with 
as little interruption as possible to take care of cor- 
rections to surface, line or gage that cannot wait, of 
course changing out rails that show signs of failure. 
It is best to begin the tie work at the end of section 
farthest from the foreman's headquarters and work 
toward the tool house if possible, but it is also well 



SUIVUMER TRACK WORK 97 

to have adjoining sections start together at the sec- 
tion line and work apart, thns giving the large amount 
of repaired track in one place. 

Two kinds of foremen are in the railroad business 
today. One is represented by the man who does ex- 
actly what he is told in the manner in which he has 
been instructed; the other carries on what he under- 
stands to be the intention of the superior officer, in 
such a manner that it will pass inspection, but he 
tries to do it in a brand new way, or at least in a way 
different from the one that has been indicated to him 
as satisfactory by his supervisor. This kind of man 
fails to realize that there may be reasons for the in- 
structions that are given him, of which he does not 
know, but no one has had time to explain to him. The 
first rule is to do exactly as your superior officer tells 
you to do, exactly the way in which you think he 
would do it if he were there to do it in your place. 
The foreman who can follow this rule and does con- 
scientiously follow it will get along a good deal faster 
in the railroad business than the other foreman Avho 
thinks that a second rate new-fangled method is bet- 
ter than a first rate old one. 

As soon as new ties are installed in place they 
should be tamped and spiked, putting on tie plates if 
required at the same time. It is not good practice to 
open up and weaken a lot of track and let the new 
ties go unspiked until you can make a general job 
of spiking, but when one or two are applied they 
should be spiked at once. The neglect of this rule 
has been the cause of serious accidents. Fill in the 
ballast that has been removed, and dress up gener- 
ally as you go so that if called away at any time on 
other work you will leave good, safe track. 

Remove the bark. The bark should be removed 
from all hewn or round timber used in railroad con- 



98 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

struction, before it is put into service. If allowed 
to remain it retards the evaporation of moisture and 
thereby hastens decay. 

Bridge piles will remain sound longer if the bark 
is removed. The same may be said of fence posts. 
Considerable loss of strength is occasioned by the fail- 
ure of nails or other fastenings to secure a firm hold 
on the wood where they are driven through the bark. 

In the case of track ties, the bark not only causes 
decay but is a source of annoyance in tamping or re- 
pairing the track and dangerous on account of fire. 
The best plan is to have, in the specifications for ties 
delivered by contract, a clause that they have all bark 
removed. 

When new ties are being placed in position they 
should not be damaged by using picks or other sharp 
pointed tools. Tie tongs, such as are now on the mar- 
ket, afford a satisfactory method of handling ties 
without injuring them. 

Ties in highway crossings. When renewing ties, 
the trackmen should not overlook highway crossings, 
where it is necessary to take up the plank, examine 
closely as to their condition, and make whatever re- 
newals are necessary. 

Renewing ties when ballasting. When ballasting 
with gravel, stone or other material, the ties in need 
of renewal should be changed out, as the work is more 
easily done then and the cost is less. It is well to 
make such renewals that the track will not have to 
be disturbed for two or three years. If any ties so 
removed are found to be in fair condition they can 
be turned over and used in nearby sidings. 

Renewal methods on various roads. A very in- 
teresting method and blank forms for keeping tie re- 
newal reports on different roads were published in 
the Ry. Age Gaz. for May 21, 1915, the accompany- 
ing description reading as follows : 



SUMMER TRACK WORK 99 

''The latest official statistics show that the rail- 
roads spend annually about $55,000,000 for the ties 
used to replace those removed from the track on ac- 
count of wear, decay, accidents, etc. This figure, 
which does not include the cost of labor for distribut- 
ing the new ties, placing them in the track and dis- 
posing of the old ones, together requiring so large a 
part of the trackmen's time during the spring and 
summer, is about 15% of the total cost of maintenance 
of way and structures and 3% of all operating ex- 
penses. It is obvious then that particular care is jus- 
tified to insure the lowest percentage of renewals con- 
sistent with proper maintenance standards; and im- 
portant as this subject is at present, it is becoming 
increasingly so on account of the rapidly increasing 
cost of ties. 

"Theoretically, to attain the maximum economy 
every tie should remain in the track until it reaches 
the point in its deterioration when it will no longer 
support the rails with the proper factor of safety, and 
should then be removed immediately. Practically, 
since ties are renewed once a year it is the general 
rule to remove all that will not safely carry the loads 
for another year, and on account of the disadvan- 
tages resulting from tearing up the roadbed, to a cer- 
tain extent ties with even a greater life than this are 
renewed during general surfacing, re-ballasting or rail 
renewal. 

' ' Some roads have tried to assign a reasonable num- 
ber of ties to each section and leave it to the foremen 
to use them to best advantage, but the imperfections 
of this scheme are obvious. It is almost universal 
therefore to base the requisition for ties on an inspec- 
tion of the track prior to the season of renewal, al- 
though the methods of making this inspection, of 
checking the reports and of supervising the work of 
placing the new ties in the track vary widely. These 



100 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

differences as they exist on 16 typical important roads 
are discussed in the following paragraphs. 

''Inspection and marking. The inspection upon 
which the requisition and allotment of new ties is 
made is left to the section foremen on the Central 
Kailroad of New Jersey with very satisfactory results. 
The supervisors are constantly in touch with the fore- 
men, walking each section during the year and fa- 
miliarizing themselves with the details. Each fore- 
man is allowed to ask for as many ties as he thinks 
he will require. These data are then checked up by 
the supervisors, who have acquired during the course 
of the year an approximate idea of what the needs 
of each section will be. The requirements are then 
forwarded to the Engineers Maintenance of Way, who 
tabulate the data and make requisition for the neces- 
sary ties. After renewals have started, the supervis- 
ors and assistant supervisors examine all ties re- 
moved very carefully, and if a foreman is found to 
be removing too many ties, or leaving poor ties in the 
track, his attention is drawn forcibly to the fact. 
The Engineers Maintenance of Way as well as the 
Superintendents also inspect ties that are removed at 
frequent and unexpected intervals in their trips over 
the line. Any ties removed from the track that are 
found to have any additional life are sorted and 
picked up by the work train and used in siding re- 
pairs or construction, being spotted in with good or 
new ties. Under this system the situation has grad- 
ually improved until it is scarcely ever necessary to 
draw a foreman's attention to any misjudgment, and 
much better results are being secured than by meth- 
ods previously employed. The objection to leaving 
the selection of ties to be removed from the track en- 
tirely to the section foreman, which is advanced by 
some maintenance men, is that there is too great a 
tendency under this method to praise the man who 



SUMMER TRACK WORK 101 

puts in the most ties per day per man, resulting in 
the removal of some ties from which additional life 
could be secured. 

' ' Several roads have found it advantageous to com- 
bine the detailed inspection of the foremen with check 
inspections by supervisors, roadmasters, engineers or 
superintendents. On the Boston & Albany the fore- 
man's statement is checked up by the supervisor or 
his assistant and is then sent to the division engineer 
for approval. On the Pennsylvania the practice is 
similar except that the division engineer, usually ac- 
companied by the supervisor, also makes frequent in- 
dependent inspections to see that the proposed renew- 
als are proper and economical. In addition, there 
are men assigned to special duty both on the division 
and in the office of the Engineer Maintenance of Way, 
who regularly follow up tie renewals, making an in- 
spection both of the ties removed from the track and 
those left in. These men submit reports on what they 
find and any cases of bad judgment are taken up 
through the regular channels. During the time that 
this practice has been followed, covering the last six 
or seven years, there has rarely been any cause for 
criticism. 

'^The reports of the Northern Pacific section fore- 
men are checked by the roadmasters walking over a 
part of each section, and in addition the division su- 
perintendent goes over at least three sections on each 
roadmaster's district accompanied by the roadmaster 
on a hand car or on foot to verify the tie require- 
ments. The Illinois Central requires the supervisors, 
after receiving the foremen's reports, to make an in- 
dependent inspection and then forward the foremen's 
reports with their recommendations. The roadmas- 
ters, on receipt of the supervisors' reports, check the 
judgment of their men. 

"Some roads place the responsibility for the tie in- 



102 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

spection entirely on the supervisors or roadmasters. 
Such roads include the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, 
the Norfolk & Western and the New York Central. 
On the Baltimore & Ohio all tie inspections are- now 
being made by the supervisors, and a general tie in- 
spector for the system checks up these reports. This 
method has been found better than a previous one in 
which tie inspectors alone handled this work. Other 
roads, including the Chicago & North Western, the 
New York, New Haven & Hartford, the Philadelphia 
& Reading, the St. Louis & San Francisco, and the 
Union Pacific, require the roadmaster or supervisor 
and the section foremen to go over the line together 
for the inspection of ties to be renewed, thus com- 
bining the broader experience and better judgment of 
the superior officer with the detailed knowledge of 
local conditions possessed by the foreman. 

''On two of the roads considered, the tie inspector 
is used with satisfaction. The Queen & Crescent in- 
spectors are selected by the roadmasters and report 
to them. 

' ' They are accompanied in making their trip over 
the line by each supervisor while working on his dis- 
trict. The Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh selects the 
most intelligent extra gang foremen for tie inspectors, 
making them report to the division engineers. They 
are accompanied by the section foremen in going over 
the line. The roadmasters and foremen are not re- 
lieved of responsibility for the safety of their track 
on this road and are given a proper voice in the mat- 
ter of tie renewal. 

"The time of making tie inspections is also ex- 
tremely variable, so that considering April 1 as the 
beginning of the tie renewal season, the inspection is 
begun on some roads as much as nine months before 
that date and is not finished on others until three 
months after it. The Boston & Albany and the New 



SUMMER TRACK WORK 103 

York Central are among those that begin early, the 
former making its inspection during July and Au- 
gust, and the latter usually finishing it before October 
1. The Union Pacific, the Chicago & North Western, 
the Pennsylvania, the Central Railroad of New Jer- 
sey, the St. Louis & San Francisco, and the New 
Haven require the inspection to be made during the 
fall, and the Queen & Crescent specifies December. 
On the Baltimore & Ohio the work is begun as soon 
as possible after January 1 and is completed before 
July 1. The months of April and May are designated 
for tie inspection on the Illinois Central, and on the 
New Haven and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh, 
the work is handled during the spring, beginning on 
the latter road as soon as the frost is out of the 
ground. 

"The points to be considered in an inspection of 
ties in the track may be left entirely to the judgment 
of the inspector or be covered more or less completely 
by written instructions, depending on the practice of 
the individual roads. When such instructions are 
brief they ordinarily mention a close examination in- 
cluding the ties on each side of the one under con- 
sideration, the local roadbed conditions^ the location, 
whether in curve or tangent, the amount and charac- 
ter of the traffic, the visible rot or crack, and a test 
with an adze or other suitable tool to determine in- 
terior soundness. A very complete set of instructions 
is issued to the tie inspectors on the Buffalo, Rochester 
& Pittsburgh, from which the following abstract is 
taken : 

"There are two standards for making renewals in 
main track; first, where the track is not to be dis- 
turbed and the ties will therefore be dug in and, sec- 
ond, where the track is to be raised off of the old bed 
allowing the ties to be placed during the raise. Under 
the first condition ties must be inspected by driving 



104 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

a pick in each side adjacent to the rail seat near both 
the bottom and the top faces below the sap line. The 
pick must be driven into the ties toward the center 
and be drawn with as little prying as possible. The 
ties must not be tested on the top except in an en- 
deavor to find decay around the tie plate and spike, 
and in such tests the ties must not be mutilated more 
than absolutely necessary. To test the tie for 
strength, one end of a pick should be inserted under 
the end of the tie and the pick used as a lever. If 
the tie is broken under the rail seat this will usually 
determine it. If two ties with only one year's safe 
service are adjacent, one must be removed. In a 
group of ties, all of which have only one year's safe 
service, enough must be renewed to leave each doubt- 
ful tie with one good neighbor. Sap rot alone is not 
sufficient to condemn a tie. A tie cut down by rail 
wear should not be renewed unless the rail has cut 
into the face more than % in. This applies to ties 
on tangent, as all curves are tie plated. On curves 
when by being adzed repeatedly for rail renewal a 
tie is cut down sufficiently to weaken it, it should be 
removed and used for side track renewals if the tim- 
ber is sound. On tangents where a good tie is cut 
down % in. by rail wear or adzing it should be pro- 
tected with tie plates against further cutting. Care- 
ful attention must be given to the inspection of red 
oak and pin oak ties, as this timber usually rots from 
the center, leaving a hard shell which can be detected 
only by careful inspection. In track that is subject 
to heaving and where shimming is necessary, care 
must be taken to insure enough good ties for spiking 
and bracing, and special attention must be given to 
the inspection of ties through road crossings, station 
platforms and other places where they are covered and 
likely to be overlooked by the section men. 

''The second condition governing the marking of 



SUMMER TRACK WORK 



105 



ties for renewal arises from the policy of the com- 
pany to resurface out of face a part of the main line 
on each section each year in addition to the reballast- 
ing of track when new rail is laid. In such cases it 
is the intention to make sufficient renewals to last two 
or three years without having to disturb the track 



'""""buffalo, ROCHESTER & PITTSBURGH RY.**" * ' 

ENQINEERINQ DEPARTMENT 

FOREMAN'S DAILY REPORT OF TIES PUT IN TRACK 






LOCATION 


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North Bound Track 






























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South Bound Track 






























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Single Main Track 
































































SW. Track No. 




























1 


Side Track No. 
































No. 7 Switch Sot 
































No. 7 Switch Set 
































No. a Switch Set 
































No. 8 Switch Set 
































No 9 Switch Set 
































No. 9 Sw.tch Set 
































No 12 Switch Set 
































No. 12 Switch Set 
































No. 7 Xover Set 
































No. 9 Xover Set 
































No.iaXo.erSet 














































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Correct 


Signature 




iio«D»*STcri 


sec. rORCMON' 


INSTRUCTIONS-Sec 


tlon Foreman must rill out one of these reporta covering tlea put In main tracks and sidings | 


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site each switch and 
of timber, and show 



Fig. 14. The B. R. & P. Foreman's Report of Ties Put in 

Track 



during that time. Under this condition the inspect- 
ors test the ties as previously described, removing all 
that will not last more than two years. Where new 
steel is laid, no bad ties must be left under the joints. 
In making renewals in this case, some fairly good ties 
may be taken out, in which case they should be care- 



106 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



fully sorted and piled, to be picked up and distributed 
for side track renewals. A lower standard of inspec- 
tion is used for mine tracks and side tracks, and es- 
pecially for standing tracks in yards where no ties 
are taken out until their safe service is passed. In 
passing tracks care should be used to see that all ties 
around turnout curves are in good condition. 

''Although a large majority of the roads considered 
require the officer making the first inspection to mark 
each tie in some distinctive manner for future iden- 
tification, several roads, including the Pennsylvania, 
the Union Pacific and the Central Kailroad of New 



"•-"" BUFFALO. ROCHESTER &. PITTSBURGH RAILWAY ,..„| 

FOREMAN'S DAILY REP(?RT^Of'tREATEd"ti'es'^TAKEN OUT OF TRACK I 


U- .'- 1" 


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B..„.c„ M... Po.. »nd MM. P... 1 i 


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Fig. 15. A Report Covering Treated Ties Taken Out of 

Track 

Jersey use no system of marking. The two commonly 
recognized methods of designating ties for renewal are 
by cutting with an adze or axe, and by painting a line 
on the web or base of the rail directly over the tie. 
Various forms of cutting are in use, such as chipping 
off one corner, and notching the side or top of the 
tie, while on the Northern Pacific two gashes about 
3 in. apart are cut on the side near the end. The 
Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh, the Queen & Cres- 
cent, the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Atchison, To- 
peka & Santa Pe use paint. 

''Renewals and records. On the Union Pacific it 



SUI^HVIER TRACK WORK 



107 



is the practice to distribute enough ties before March 
1 to care for the renewals on each section up to June 
30, the remainder being piled in yards and distributed 
after July 1, so as not to interfere with the mowing 
of the right of way. The roadmaster selects the loca- 
tions at which the renewals are to be made each 
month and inspects the ties after renewal. On the 
Pennsylvania the foreman "blazes" or marks with 
kiel the ties that are to come out just previous to 
their renewal. The ties removed are held for inspec- 
tion and the good ones returned to side tracks, the 
rest being burned or destroyed. On the New York 
Central the foremen are instructed to avoid as far 



Indicafes 
k/nd of 
f inn ben 



9 



I^/PM 






<HMMMHKNi-<MMH »-»-<•-•-( H >-«-( V 



IMK^'^ 



*-7T-T 



■l8@Z"'3'-0" 



Fig. 16. Method Used on the B. R. & P. for Marking the 
Kind of Timber and the Year Ties Are Put in Track 



as possible the renewal of ties to face and they are 
cautioned particularly against damaging the ties by 
picks or by hammering them in spacing. Tie tongs 
are furnished on all sections where treated ties are 
used and tie plugs are required to be driven in the 
holes whenever a spike is drawn. To reduce the tend- 
ency to decay around the holes these plugs are 
treated. 

' ' On the Queen & Crescent the foreman, during the 
renewal of ties, examines carefully each tie spotted for 
renewal by the inspector and leaves in the track any 
that he thinks will last another year. He also reports 
any ties not spotted that he thinks should be removed, 
giving their location, but waiting for authority from 



108 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



the roadmaster before taking them out of the track. 
On the B., R. & P., the foremen renew only the ties 
spotted by the inspectors on track that is not to be 
raised. In case they think additional ties should be 
removed they report to the roadmaster, who has the 
ties reinspected. In track that is being raised the 
foremen are allowed to remove unmarked ties which 
should come out, placing: a cross on them for special 
inspection later. Such ties are used again if possible. 
The inspectors on this road are instructed to watch 
carefully the practice of section forces in renewing 
ties and to report any improper practice. It is cus- 



"'"" ^ft BOSTON & ^ALBANY RAILROAD — "■ 

Soction No SECTION FOREMAN'S REPORT. Suh-DivWnn No 

CROSS TIES TAKEH- OUT OF TRACK ...... ^-l. _..., 


Section Foremen shall report ;.ll Cross Ties taken out o( Track, not includinE Bridce or Switch Ties, as per Blank Fn,™ bi-low Great care shouM 
be taken to give all information called lor. In column "Kind ot Tr-eat.nent" the loUowing letters should Ix u».-d instead of writing words in full:- 
Umrealcd. U; Treatc-d, Zinc Chloride Process. Z CU Ci«)50te. C; Rucpping. RP. 






s:s^^ 


:!£■ 


.-iv-t 


KIND OF 




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Signed 


















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Fig. 17. 



The Boston & Albany Form for Reporting Cross 
Ties Taken Out of Track 



tomary on most roads to pile and burn the ties re- 
moved after proper inspection to secure ties that msiy 
have additional life in side tracks or yards. Special 
precautions are necessary in burning ties to prevent 
fire damage to the telegraph line, right of way fences 
and adjacent property. 

"The number and kinds of records of tie renewals 
kept for future reference differ considerably on the 
roads considered. These permanent records are kept 
by various officers ranging from the division engineer 
to the general manager and the records may be in- 



SUMMER TRACK WORK 109 

tended simply for a check of the actual renewals with 
the requisition or for comparisons of the renewals on 
each mile for a period of years to make possible close 
supervision. On the Union Pacific each roadmaster 
IS given an allowance showing the number of ties that 
can be used each month to avoid getting the expense 
for all renewals in one month. To supplement the 
record turned in by the tie inspector, the foremen on 
the Queen & Crescent are required to make a monthly 
report to the roadmaster showing the number of ties 
on each mile spotted for renewal, but found good for 
another year, and also the number not spotted but 
removed, with the cause of their removal. The Bos- 
ton & Albany keeps a record by weeks of all ties taken 
out of track on the forms reproduced herewith. 

"The B., R. & P. R. R. requires a daily report from 
foremen showing ties put in the track and treated ties 
removed. This information furnished on the blanks 
reproduced herewith, is tabulated in the office of the 
chief engineer in book form by weeks. The treated 
ties on this road are marked at the treating plant by 
a galvanized nail bearing letters indicating the kind 
of timber, which are driven in the upper face of the 
tie 12 in. from one end. When the ties are placed 
in the track a similar nail bearing the date is placed 
in the upper face of the tie between the rails, the 
position along the tie also being varied by an incre- 
ment of 2 in. for each year. On the Baltimore & 
Ohio the record of ties marked for renewal is trans- 
ferred in the office of the division engineer to forms 
covering main and side track, tie inspection and re- 
newals, blue prints of which are sent to the Engineer 
Maintenance of "Way through the office of the district 
Engineer Maintenance of Way immediately upon the 
completion of the inspection for the division. Dur- 
ing the season of renewals the foremen report 
monthly on the ties removed from track, this report 



no THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

accompanying and checking the material report. 
This information is also entered on the forms men- 
tioned above, furnishing a complete record of the re- 
newals of the year by miles. 

* ' On the Illinois Central a record is kept in the of- 
fice of the chief engineer of all ties used each year 
for construction and maintenance and also a special 
graphical record of the renewals in main track. Each 
district has a separate chart, and these are bound in 
book form. A book covering the entire system is kept 
in the office of the chief engineer and one covering 
each division is furnishd to the division superinten- 
dent. As soon as the recommendations for tie renew- 
als are made they are plotted on the chart and when 
any important difference from the accumulative aver- 
age is shown an investigation is immediately made 
by an assistant engineer from the office of the En- 
gineer Maintenance of Way or by an old roadmaster 
selected by the Engineer Maintenance of Way on ac- 
count of his previous good record in tie renewals. The 
curves shown herewith illustrate the manner of keep- 
ing this record for a typical division (Fig. 18). 

''In determining the average number of ties per 
mile used in renewals each year, a correction is ap- 
plied in cases where new lines have been constructed, 
so that the average derived furnishes a comparison 
of the renewals on all divisions regardless of the date 
the line was constructed. T.he mileage of new track 
is therefore added not in its entirety the year the 
line is built but in sections during the period of nine 
years. The amount added each year is proportion- 
ate to the estimated tie renewals required for that 
year. The first addition is made during the third 
year, amounting to 2 per cent, the remainder being 
added as follows: fourth year 3 per cent, fifth year 
5 per cent, sixth year 5 per cent, seventh year 25 per 
cent, eighth year 50 per cent, and ninth, 10 per cent. 



SUI^IMER TRACK WORK 



111 



On account of the increased average life of ties re- 
sulting from the use of tie plates and preserA^ative 
treatment these percentages will be revised in the near 



1897 


Cross T/es per Mile of Track 

K> to -fc> 
§ § § 




If 

£88 
283 
302 
339 
350 
353 
327 
34/ 
350 
348 
335 
3U 
329 
34/ 
336 
335 
335 
372 
3/7 


407.26 
480.66 
^80.96 
48/.3/ 
48/. 94 
482.96 
485.60 
49/. 3 6 
504.3/ 
5/2.68 
5/9.92 
538.22 
568.84 
585.64 
604.21 
602.84 
604.80 
60865 
6/O00 


(n 

1/7^55 
/33909 
/6/857 
2/3903 
/ 37 8 99 
/79960 
8599/ 
2/3/39 
208046 
/7/38d 
///772 
/74/83 
/58399 
27553/ 
/694Z7 
/99960 
200559 
226484 
/936/2 


98 
99 

CO 
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02 

JO 

// 

12 
13 

1915 










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336 
444 
389 
373 
/78 
434 
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334 
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324 
278 
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230 
331 
332 
338 










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Fig. 18. A Chart Kept by the Illinois Central, Showing 
the Actual Annual Consumption and the Accumulative 
Average Annual Consumption of Ties Per Mile of Main 
Track on One Division 



future. Two averages are shown on the chart, the 
solid line representing the average ties per mile used 
in renewals in the years shown, and the dotted line 
the accumulative average per mile used in renewals 



112 THE TUACKMAN'S HELPER 

since 1897, the year in which the chart begins. The 
actual number of ties used each year is shown at the 
top of the chart and the scale of miles is corrected, 
not actual/' 

Economy in the use of treated ties and the com- 
parative cost of treating seasoned and unseasoned 
ties. Mr. F. J. Angier, Superintendent Timber 
Preservation, Baltimore and Ohio R. R., read a paper 
at the eighth annual meeting of the American Wood 
Preservers' Association at Chicago, from which we 
quote the following abstract: 

'^When we speak of an unseasoned tie, we mean 
one freshly cut, or, at least, one that has been recently 
cut and has lost but a very small amount of the mois- 
ture which it originally contained; in other words, 
the sapwood is so completely filled with moisture that 
it would be impossible to thoroughly treat the tie 
until this moisture had been at least partially re- 
moved. A seasoned tie, therefore, is one that has 
been cut for some time and the moisture allowed to 
evaporate to a greater or less degree. The time nec- 
essary to season a tie so that it can be properly treated 
varies in different localities, as well as in different 
seasons. The kind of wood also is of considerable 
importance. Oak ties, in Illinois, must be air-sea- 
soned six months or more, according to the time of 
year, before they can be properly treated. Some 
kinds of ties may be seasoned in three or four months. 

"For the purpose of illustration we will assume 
that it requires six hours to treat a charge of thor- 
oughly seasoned ties and nine hours to treat a charge 
of unseasoned ties. Of course, the time may vary 
one way or the other, but we found this to be a fair 
average. (It should be stated here that the treatment 
referred to is with a mixture of creosote and zinc- 
chloride, known as the card process.) 

''Assuming this to be correct, attention is called to 



SUMMER TRACK WORK 113 

the two tables following, one showing the cost of 
treating in a plant having a maximum capacity of 
1,800,000 seasoned ties a year, and the other the cost 
of treating in the same plant, where the maximum 
capacity is reduced to 1,200,000 unseasoned ties a 
year. 

Cost of Seasoned Ties; Treating Capacity of Plant, 
1,800,000 per Year 

Unloading from cars to ground to season at $0.0070 

each $ 12,600.00 

Loading from ground to trains at $0.0055 each. . . . 9,900.00 

Switching trams at $0.0020 per tie 3,600.00 

Loading treated ties out at $0.0065 each 11,700.00 

Fixed expenses 23,268.00 

Preservatives at 15 cts. per tie 270,000.00 

Fuel (assume 1/3 less for seasoned over unseasoned 

ties) 5,600.00 

Insurance carried on 1,000,000 ties (estimated) .... 4,000.00 
Interest on 1,000,000 ties for six months, or 5 per 

cent on $250,000.00 12,500.00 



$353,168.00 
600,000 more seasoned ties treated than unseasoned, 
worth $0,044 each per year extra (see state- 
ment) 26,400.00 

$326,768.00 
Cost per tie $0.1815 

Cost of Unseasoned Ties ; Treating Capacity of Plant 
1,200,000 per Year 

Unloading one-fourth from cars to ground to enable 

prompt releasing of cars, at $0.0070 $ 2,100.00 

Loading 900,000 ties from cars to trams at platform 
and 300,000 ties from ground to trams at 

$0.0055 6,600.00 

Switching 300,000 ties from yard to retorts at 

$0.0020 600.00 

Loading ties out at $0.0065 each 7,800.00 

Fixed expenses 23,268.00 

Preservatives at 15 cts. per tie 180,000.00 

Fuel 8,400.00 



114 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

Insurance carried on 300,000 ties (estimated).... 1,200.00 
Interest on 300,000 ties, or 5 per cent on $75,000.00 3,750.00 



$233,718.00 
Cost per tie $0.1948 

''In each case the total cost of handling is shown 
from the moment the ties are received at the plant 
until they are loaded into cars for shipment. In the 
case of fixed expenses there are included the salaries 
of the superintendent, general foreman, office force, 
engineeers, firemen, etc. ; that is, all labor which would 
not change one way or the other, whether treating 
seasoned or unseasoned ties. This amounts to 
$0.0129 per tie when treating 1,800,000 ties per year, 
and $0.0194 when treating 1,200,000 ties per year. 
In the case of seasoned ties, where no steaming is 
done, it is assumed that insurance is carried on 1,000,- 
000 ties for six months and that $250,000 will be con- 
tinually invested at 5 per cent. In the case of un- 
seasoned ties, we must assume that at least 300,000 
will always be in the yard. This stock is necessary 
to provide against delay to plant at certain times of 
the year, when traffic is so great that company mate- 
rial cannot be moved with regularity. Also, at cer- 
tain times of the year, ties will be received faster 
than they can be treated, necessitating the storing 
of a portion of them. 

"It is shown in the table that a treated tie is worth 
$0,044 per year to the company more than an un- 
treated one. This figure is obtained as follows : 

Untreated Ties — 

First cost $0.50 

Cost of putting in track 15 

Cost of tie in track $0.65 

5 per cent interest on investment for six years 195 

Second renewal, end of six years 65 



SUMMER TRACK WORK 115 

5 per cent interest on first investment for six years, 

and on second investment for six years 39 

Total cost of tie for period of 12 years $1,885 

Average cost per tie per year $0,157 

Treated Ties- 
First cost $0.70 

Cost of putting in track 15 

Cost of tie in track $0.85 

5 per cent on investment for 12 years 51 

Total cost of tie for 12 years $1.36 

Average cost per tie per year $0,113 

Saving per tie per year, $0,044. 

''Untreated ties are assumed to last six years, and 
treated ties twelve years. Assuming: this to be rea- 
sonable, and that 600,000 more ties per year can be 
treated when thoroughly seasoned, deduct from the 
cost of seasoned ties the difference between 1,800,000 
ties and 1,200,000 ties, or 600,000 ties, at $0,044 each, 
and we have a difference of $0.0133 per tie in favor 
of treating seasoned ties. 

''In addition there would be a better penetration 
of the preservatives; therefore a longer life obtained 
for the ties and the lessened possibility of injury to 
the wood by steaming. When steaming there is al- 
ways a large amount of sewage to dispose of, while 
in non-steaming there is practically none. The dis- 
position of sewage is a difficult problem at most 
plants, because no matter how it is handled some of 
it will get into the rivers or creeks and pollute the 
water to such an extent that damage suits may result. 
This is entirely avoided when using seasoned ties." 



VI 

CUTTING WEEDS 

Points about weeding. On embankments, the 
weeds should be kept down with a scythe or brush 
hook, as far out as the right of way limits, if the fore- 
man is allowed men enough to perform this work with- 
out neglecting the track or other necessary work. A 
clean track is not necessarily a safe track, and a fore- 
man should not have his men mowing grass and weeds 
along the right of way, unless the help he is allowed 
and the condition of his track at the time will permit 
it. When weeds are cut in the center of an earth 
ballasted track or on an embankment the earth that 
is picked up by the shovel together with the weeds 
should not be thrown down the embankment, but 
should be turned over and allowed to remain where 
it was originally. The practice of shaving off the 
embankment one or two inches every time weeds are 
cut is bad, since the loose earth thrown down the hill 
soon washes away, and each additional weed cutting 
of this kind weakens the shoulder, makes the fill nar- 
rower, and in time allows the ends of the ties to pro- 
ject over the bank and the track to settle for want of 
a sufficient support. 

In connection with this subject attention may be 
called to the fact that extensive experiments have been 
made on some of the prominent roads by sprinkling 
the roadbed with oil, for the purpose of preventing the 
raising of dust by fast trains. The observed effects 
have been very gratifying. Not only does the oil pre- 

116 



CUTTING WEEDS 



117 



vent the former clouds of dust, but it has proven use- 
ful in other ways. The oil acts as a tie-preserving 
agent, and to a certain extent prevents water from 
soaking into the roadbed, and finally discourages the 
rapid growth of grass and weeds. The oil is applied 

4- Kennedy quick acting 
.6ate Valves 




Section 



g''Dia. inside 




Plan. 

Fig. 19. Section and Plan of Q. & C. Sprinkling Car 

on cinder, sand, gravel, or earth ballast, with equally 
good results, and many western roads are making ex- 
tensive tests both to destroy the weeds and grass, and 
to prevent the heaving of track by frosts. Any de- 
velopment that will relieve the track department of 



118 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

weed cutting and at the same time allay the dust will 
meet with general approval. 

We show herewith in Fig. 19 a section and a plan 
of the Q. & C. oil sprinkling car. A 4-inch pipe runs 
the full length of the car with rubber hose attachments 
to the oil supply, which is carried in ordinary tank 
cars. To this main pipe other pipes are attached by 
rubber hose so that they can be raised or lowered ac- 
cording to the surface of the roadbed. Each side 
sprinkler is adjusted by a hand wheel with chain at- 
tached to a staff supporting the outer end of the pipe. 
The rails are protected from the oil spray by a suit- 
able device, as shown in the sectional view. 

Tools for weed cutting. Although a shovel is most 
commonly used for cutting weeds on railroads, tools 
such as that shown in Fig. 20 are used on many roads 
on account of their superiority in many respects. In 
the first place, they are more convenient for the men 
to use, are not so tiresome, and can be handled with 
greater convenience, the men working in an upright 
position when cutting weeds with them, instead of in 



Fig. 20. Weed Cutting Tool 

the stooped or bent over posture which must be as- 
sumed with a short-handled shovel. From one-sixth 
to one-fourth more weeds may be cut in a day with 
this tool than with a shovel. It is less expensive than 
a shovel, and the dirt or ballast that would be lifted 
by a shovel and wasted by careless men is not dis- 
turbed by the tool shown, when weeds are cut, but 
remains in its original position in the track or on the 
shoulder of the embankment. This last advantage 
alone is a sufficient reason for its general introduction 



CUTTING WEEDS 119 

on all roads wliere extensive weed cutting: is neces- 
sary. 

The weed cutting tool should have a blade made of 
very thin, hard steel. The blade of the hoe, as manu- 
factured for garden use, when properly tempered, is 
the correct thing, because, although the edge grad- 
ually wears away, yet it never requires sharpening, 
as would be the case with thicker blades on account 
of their coming in contact with stones or gravel. 

When weeds are heavy, section foremen can greatly 
improve the appearance of their track and save con- 
siderable labor, by bolting a piece of timber to the 
end of the hand car, allowing it to project far enough 
out on the side of the track to carry an iron rod with 
a small steel shovel at its end to mark on the ground 
the outside line for cutting weeds as the car is pushed 
ahead on the track. A still better plan is to rig out 
a thin steel wheel, which offers less resistance to the 
motion of the car. 



VII 

BALLASTING 

Ballast. Crushed stone is the best kind of ballast 
since it makes the most solid foundation, drains the 
track most thoroughly, does not heave the track in 
cold weather, does not wash, makes little or no dust 
and stands the wear and tear of heavy traffic better 
than any other kind. There is no doubt that ties last 
longer in stone ballast than in any other, but it is 
hard to give exact data as to how mUch longer. 

Furnace slag was extensively used on roads in the 
eastern part of the country until the adoption of the 
process of granulating it at the steel mills about ten 
years ago because of economies effected in the handling 
of it. However the granulated slag now received 
from the mills is used to some extent and ranks very 
close to gravel for general excellence as ballast. 

Gravel is easier to procure along a large percentage 
of roads than crushed stone, makes easier riding track, 
and is easy to handle; it also permits of track being 
readily lined and surfaced and ties renewed with lit- 
tle labor. 

Burned clay ballast is used in parts of the country 
where gravel and stone are not available. 

Cinders make an effective ballast and are used on 
account of their cheapness, it being necessary to load 
them at ash pits, and those not required for filling in 
connection with new work may be utilized to advan- 
tage for this purpose. 

Levels. Levels should be taken by engineers and 
grade stakes set every hundred feet apart indicating 

120 



BALLASTING 



121 



the height to which it is desired to bring the top of 
the rail. If for any reason it is not possible for the 
engineers to give grade stakes, as sometimes happens 
when track is being re-ballasted, the spot board should 
be used, which very useful and convenient tool will 
now be described for the benefit of any who may not 
have had occasion to use it. 

Spot board. For use in raising track and ballast- 
ing this board may be ten feet long, eight inches wide 

Lf.w^, (Line of Sight Painted 



y//y/////////////. 



."Xl-Z 



X^Top Of Rail 



lo'-o" 




Tangent. 

Line of Si^ht9 ^ ^ ^F^inted Red 



eQ 



o "^ 

100 03 




rPeep Hole 

Set Screw 
[^Elevation 
of Outer Ra»l 
Raisinc Sight 
Block Block CURVE 



Elevation of 
Outer Rail 

Arrachment to run elevation 
when ballasting without 
using the ordinary cross level 



Fig. 21. Spot Board 



and about one and a quarter inches thick, constructed 
of white pine as shown in Fig. 21. One of the legs 
should be about sixteen inches long and the other three 
feet, both being adjustable by means of the set screws 
shown. A convenient coloring for the board is to 
have the lower half black, then a two-inch white stripe 
and a two-inch red one, the line of sight being to the 
division line between the red and the white stripes, 



122 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

or two inches below the top of the board. Use an 
eight-inch raising block so that the top of finished rail 
will be two inches below the bottom of the board or 
eight inches below the line of sight. 

The use of the spot board permits of taking out all 
small irregularities in the grade by running from one 
high spot to another where it is not desired to change 
the height ; or it may be used for making a uniform 
lift in ballasting such as is often the case when the 
old grade of the track is regular. The operation of 
setting the board is simply to force the legs into the 
ground or ballast, and banking enough dirt around 
them to hold firmly, and then adjust the board on the 
legs so that the division line between red and white 
is exactly eight inches above the height selected for 
the finished top of rail. Then level up the board by 
means of the level bubbles provided. 

The foreman sights through the sight block which 
has a peep hole for that purpose 8 inches from the 
top of the rail when the sight block is resting upon 
the rail. The other end of the line of sight is the di- 
vision line between red and white, which likewise is 
exactly 8 inches above the point selected for the fin- 
ished top of rail. At the point of the track where 
the jack is applied another 8-inch block is placed upon 
the rail and the track is jacked up until the top of 
this block is on line between the foreman's eye and 
the division line on the spot board. If the track is 
straight and there is no super elevation to provide for, 
both rails are brought up in exactly the same way, 
or one rail can be raised in this way and the other 
one leveled to it. If on a curve, there are two ways 
of providing for the elevation of the outer rail. 

First : — Run in one rail or the other by the method 
described above and use this as a basis in fixing the 
height of the other rail by means of the cross level. 

Second: — Have the spot board set so that the line 



BALLASTINa 123 

of sight is eight inches above the height selected for 
the "high rail" and when running the "high rail" 
use the eight-inch blocks just as explained above ; but 
in running the low rail run adjustable slide on both 
the sight and raising blocks down to increase the 
height of these by the amount of super-elevation de- 
sired, or in other words if you want four inches' ele- 
vation run the slide down four inches which makes the 
block twelve inches high to use on top of the rail in- 
stead of eight, so that the low rail will be run in just 
four inches lower than the high rail where the plain 
blocks are used without the extension slide. By re- 
ferring to the lower part of the figure the application 
and use of the spot board on a curve will be under- 
stood. Track with elevation can be run in quite ac- 
curately by this method but of course not so accurately 
as with the cross level, which should be used when 
giving the final raise and surface. 

Cleaning stone ballast with screens. Stone ballast 
is now generally cleaned on American railroads by 
shaking it out with ballast forks. During the sum- 
mer of 1912 experiments were made on the Baltimore 
& Ohio Railroad with screens for cleaning this type 
of ballast. The experiments indicate that the use of 
screens is preferable to the use of ballast forks, both 
on account of better work and lower cost. The type 
of screen and the method and cost of using it for 
cleaning stone ballast, were described by Mr. W. I. 
Trench, Division Engineer of the Baltimore & Ohio 
Railroad, in an appendix to the report of the Com- 
mittee on Ballast of the American Railway Engineer- 
ing Association. The information here given is taken 
from Mr. Trench's description as published in the 
Bulletin of the Association for February, 1913. 

In approaching the problem of cleaning ballast by 
means of screens, it was recognized that the present 
methods involved one of the most expensive and 



124 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

tedious operations occurring in railway maintenance 
and that for this reason the periodical cleanings are 
often deferred much longer than good practice would 
seem to demand. It was felt that if a screen could 
be designed which would make a proper separation of 
stone and dirt and at the same time dispose of these 
two materials in a way to avoid further handling, with 
a single cast of the shovel instead of the repeated sift- 
ing motion and the further shoveling of the dirt in 
its disposal as required by the fork, an enormous sav- 
ing could be made. 

It was believed that to be practicable this screen 
must be as cheap as was commensurate with durabil- 
ity, easily portable, and so related in position to the 
track when in use as. to make its removal unnecessary 
on the passage of trains. Its operation must be pro- 
gressive along the track and complete, working toward 
the dirty ballast and leaving the clean ballast behind 
it in such shape as to require no further handling. 
Its capacity must be limited only by the speed with 
which the laborers can handle the shovel and it must 
be susceptible to use by a gang, so arranged that the 
work of every man is continuous and unchanging and 
so proportioned that no man's work is dependent on 
the progress made by another ; that is, there should be 
no halts. It is believed that these results have been 
secured in the screen to be described and that its use, 
by a properly organized gang, will result in such a 
saving as to make the further general use of the fork 
method improbable. 

Experiments on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad were 
made on a portion of its double track line, and it was 
found that the most efficient gang for this condition 
was one of twelve men equipped with three screens. 
There is a screen for each berm and one for the cen- 
ter ditch. The construction of all three is identical, 
there being interchangeable legs for use on the berm, 



BALLASTING 125 

and in the center ditch. The legs for use on the berm 
are so designed that the screen rides on the ends of 
the ties outside the rail at such a distance from the 
track as not to interfere with traffic, and at the same 
time deposits the cleaned stone on the berm in final 
position. It stands at such an elevation that the dirt 
is deposited directly into a wheelbarrow standing on 
subgrade. The legs for use in the center ditch are 
designed to ride on the cleaned subgrade as the screen 
is slid along and are of such a height that the dirt 
is deposited in a handbarrow, which is placed beneath 
the screen, and the clean stone is left in the center 
ditch in final position. The upper end of the screen 
is carried on supports which are readily adjustable 
in height to accommodate it for use in the center ditch 
or on the berm in either cut or fill. When in use in 
the center ditch, the screen is laid flat upon the ground 
on the passage of trains and lies wholly below the 
top of rail. 

A short description of the structural details will be 
made so that a better understanding will be had of 
the method of operation to follow. The screen frame 
is constructed of standard 2-in. x 3-in. -x 114-in. angle 
iron set up so that the short leg turns out, the long 
leg forming the vertical sides of the screen. The 
screen proper is formed of i/4-in. rods, crimped to- 
gether, giving a mesh % in. x 8 ins. It was found 
with this mesh and with the screen inclined at 45° 
that the separation of stone and dirt was perfect even 
in damp weather, and this cannot always be said of 
the results secured from forks. These crimped rods 
are set in a rectangular steel frame made of 1-in. x 
i/o-in. X %-in. channel iron, and this frame is bolted 
inside the main frame so that the screen proper can 
be readily detached, as a whole, and sent to the shop 
for repairs. The entire screen is backed with a gal- 
vanized iron slide which is so formed that it gathers 



126 THE TRACIiMAN'S HELPER 

the dirt which has come through any part of the 
screen and deposits it in a receptacle set beneath by 
means of a spout. The spout is really a hinged door 
suspended at its outer end by a chain and convenient 
fastening so that its height can be regulated, and 
when the receptacle is removed for emptying, can be 
closed. With this door closed the screen will hold 
about one wheelbarrow load of dirt, so that the opera- 
tion of the screen is not stopped while dirt is being 
dumped. At the top of the screen is a hood which 
forms a deflector for the ballast thrown over the top, 
the method of operation in this case being to slide the 
screen backwards from the cleaned ballast towards 
the uncleaned ballast, the latter being thrown over 
the top and being left in clean condition at the bot- 
tom. This hood when screen is in use on the berm 
is thrown back and forms the top against which bal- 
last is thrown when in this position. The screen con- 
structed as indicated is practically indestructible and 
will support the weight of a man without impression. 

For use with each screen is provided a galvanized 
iron handbarrow which is so formed that it fits ex- 
actly upon the horizontal legs when in use on the 
berm, being so placed after a sufficient quantity of 
cleaned ballast has been allowed to fall outside the 
rail, that the remainder is caught in the handbarrow 
and drawn across the rail to be deposited in the cribs. 
When in use in the center ditch, the handbarrow is 
placed beneath to catch the 'dirt. 

The cross-section of the finished work is shown in 
Fig. 22. It will be noted that the cribs are cleaned 
to the bottom of the ties, the center ditch 18 ins. below 
the top of rail and the berm 24 ins. below the top of 
rail at the end of tie and sloping to 3 ft. below top of 
rail at back of side ditch. Every 50 ft. one crib is 
cleaned to the bottom of the center ditch on one end 
and to the top of subgrade on the other, forming an 



BALLASTING 



127 



outlet for water collected in the center ditch. This 
arrangement gives an absolutely dry and stable road- 
bed. The dirt from the ballast, or so much of it as is 
required, is dressed upon the subgrade outside the 
ballast line, and in addition to giving a neat black 
appearance and a pleasing contrast to the white stone 
ballast, serves to keep down weeds very effectually. 
What is not required for this purpose is used to widen 
embankment along the line. 

As stated above for double track work, three screens 
are used. When tracks are on fill on both sides, dirt 
from each side screen is disposed of on its own side 
of the embankment, and dirt from the center ditch is 
dumped directly from handbarrow over bank on side 




Fig. 22. Roadbed Section for Cut and Fill, B. & O. R. R. 



most desirable. When one side is on fill and other 
side in cut, wheelbarrow loads of dirt are wheeled or 
carried bodily from cut side to fill side. When it is 
necessary to carry dirt across tracks, care is used to 
keep the screen on the side from which it is carried in 
an advanced position, with reference to the other 
screens, so that dirt will be carried over uncleaned 
roadbed and not over that which has been cleaned. 
It will be seen that dirt carried to the fill on other side 
of tracks from the center screen passes over dirty bal- 
last before the arrival of the screen to the right, and 
likewise, dirt from the screen to the left passes over 
the tracks before the arrival of either of the other two 
screens, the screens in this case traveling from right 
to left. When tracks are in cut, on both sides, wheel- 



128 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

barrow loads are wheeled out to the nearest end o£ 
cut, the handbarrow from the screen in the center 
ditch being dumped into a wheelbarrow or shoveled 
directly from pan to barrow standing across one rail, 
dirt from side screens being poured from screens di- 
rectly into wheelbarrow. It is found that dirt can be 
wheeled out of a cut for a distance of 800 ft. to 1,000 
ft. at less expense than would be the case if thrown 
upon the ground and loaded again upon a work train 
on a busy railroad. 

^'The following gang organization is adhered to: 
For the operation of three screens as indicated under 
ordinary circumstances, twelve men are sufficient ; with 
long hauls of dirt, more men to be added for wheel- 
barrow work, so screen gang will be kept going. Of 
the twelve men, two shovel from each side of berm 
onto their respective screens, two from the center 
ditch onto the center screen, and one man in center 
of each track shoveling from the cribs onto the screen 
most available; one man with pick advances ahead 
of shovelers to loosen hardened ballast before their ar- 
rival. These are dispensed with if ballast is loosened 
by means of a plow attached to work engine. Long 
stretches of ballast can be loosened in this way in a 
short time by work engine ; enough to keep gang going 
several days. The remaining three men are sufficient 
usually to handle wheelbarrows in disposal of dirt, 
dress dirt down on berm and fork a uniform ballast 
line, although if hand laid ballast line is required, 
more men would be necessary. By careful handling 
of this gang, ballast and dirt are disposed of at one 
operation in their final position and no further at- 
tention is necessary. In most cases it is found that 
the cleaning of ballast so reduces its volume that ad- 
ditional stone is necessary. In this case the disposi- 
tion of the stone from the screens is so handled that 
the berms and center ditch are filled out completely, 



BALLASTING 129 

and any deficiency occurs between the rails where ad- 
ditional stone can be most conveniently distributed 
from Rodger ballast cars without further handling. 
The gang of twelve men costs per day: Foreman, 
$2.40 ; 11 laborers at $1.60, $17.60 ; total, $20. 

' ' A gang equipped and organized as above will cover 
165 ft. of double track per day of 10 hours, making 
the cost per mile of double track, $640. This, of 
course, includes cleaning ballast, dressing ballast and 
disposal of dirt complete. Single track work would 
cost considerably less than half this amount, as there 
would be no center ditch to contend with. The ballast 
really handled in this test was considerably more than 
the cross-section, shown in Fig. 22, would indicate, 
as before cleaning the ballast was piled above rail in 
center ditch and rounded high on berm. An average 
of 227 wheelbarrow loads of dirt were removed per 
100 ft. of double track cleaned. 

"For comparison with the fork method, the identi- 
cal gang used above was tried with forks and advanced 
but 72 ft. per day. This also included the dressing 
complete and disposal of dirt, it being necessary to 
shovel the latter in wheel and handbarrows. This 
shows a cost per mile of double track of $1466." 

We see various figures given from time to time on 
the cost of cleaning ballast per mile. Some of them 
are very much less than the above, and we can only 
believe that this is occasioned by omitting to include 
the disposal of dirt and dressing road complete, or 
on account of cleaning to a less depth in track than 
indicated in Fig. 22, or perhaps a less thorough sepa- 
ration of stone and dirt. In many cases, a raise is 
given the track and ballast is put under without clean- 
ing. In the above test, no raise was made. 

"This screen weighs about 325 lbs., and can be eas- 
ily propelled along the track by the two shovelers at 
work at the respective screens. With the material 



130 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

used in them with careful handling and painting, they 
should last for years. The trial lot of three made 
with handbarrows complete by a Baltimore firm cost 
$45 each." 

Both sides of the track should be raised and tamped 
at the same time when ballasting or taking out sags; 
otherwise, if first one side is raised and tamped and 
the other side afterwards it will have a tendency to 
throw the track out of line, and there will be a place 
under the side that was first raised which is not 
tamped. Do not tamp in the center of the track, as 
this produces center-bound track and will result in 
broken ties. 

High places. Short high points in the track to be 
ballasted should not be raised at all if they are higher 
than the surfaced track, but should be let down, if 
this requires less labor than to surface up the track 
to the high point. 

Uniform tamping. The secret of putting up good 
smooth track that will remain so for a long time lies 
in having your men well organized, and in getting 
them to work as nearly alike as possible. Uniformity 
in the work is everything. Where sand or gravel is 
used, a first-class track can be ballasted by having the 
men put the material to place under all the ties with 
the shovel blade, tamping only the joint ties, and 
picking up the low places after some trains have 
passed over it. 

A tie should be tamped throughout, so as to fur- 
nish as solid a bearing as possible, but care should be 
taken that it does not become centerbound, or, in other 
words, the middle of the tie so supported as to cause 
the track to rock. On double track roads it will assist 
the general condition of the track to tamp the leaving 
side of the tie harder than and after the other, thus 
forming a wedge and arresting any slight forward 
movement. 



BALLASTING 131 

Mechanical tamping. There are several electric 
and pneumatic tamping machines on the market. One 
of these is called the ''Imperial pneumatic tamping 
machine ' ' and has materially reduced the cost of track 
ballast and maintenance. These machines are oper- 
ated in pairs, one on each side of the tie, the opera- 
tion of the tool being a rapid hammer action on the 
tamping bar, which in turn compacts the ballast and 
forces it down and under the tie, each tie being tamped 
a distance of about 16 to 18 in. either side of the rail. 
Observations made on a railroad where new track was 
being raised from 2 to 3 in. on stone ballast showed an 
average of 240 ties tamped per nine hour day, at a 
total cost of 2 cents per tie. These machines operate 
very conveniently in cramped quarters, such as 
switches, frogs and crossovers, where hand tamping is 
difficult and sometimes almost impossible to do well. 

For operating these tampers an air compressor is 
necessary, and is generally built in the style of a 
gasoline motor ; consisting of a vertical air compressor 
mounted on a hand car with reservoir cooling system 
direct connected to a gasoline motor, accompanied by 
a suitable air receiver and piping. These compressor 
cars are self-propelled and capable of transporting the 
section gang to and from its work. The tamping ma- 
chines are economical in air consumption and may pos- 
sibly be operated from switch and signal service air 
lines without interfering with the operation of sig- 
nals, etc. They handle stone, cinder or other ballast 
with equal effectiveness. 

The New York Central Railroad made some experi- 
ments in 1914 with tamping machines, where ties 
were being spaced and the track lifted from 2 to 4 in. 
by the action of the machines. One of the tests con- 
sisted of spacing ties under new rails, raising the 
track on stone and doing the work of the section gang. 
Another test was for regular section work, spacing 



132 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

ties and surfacing the track. Still another test was 
done by a main line section gang using the mechanical 
tamping outfit after the track had been raised 12 in. 
on stone by a special gang. The time necessary for 
the work increased with the thickness of the layer of 
ballast. A lift of from 2 to 4 in. required 2 min. for 
two machines. Ordinarily it required 2 min. for a tie. 

The final . conclusions from the tests wxre as fol- 
lows : — 

(1) Mechanical tampers can raise track; (2) Less 
settling was observed when the tampers were used 
than by hand work; (3) The settling of track was 
more uniform; (4) Machine tamped track is more 
permanent. The only difficulty encountered in using 
the machines was the breaking of their parts. 

In air operated tampers the work was satisfactorily 
done at distances of 600 ft. and also at 50 ft., the 
cost of the apparatus being reasonable. One com- 
plete unit of three tampers, 600 ft. of hose and com- 
pressor mounted on a car cost about $1800. 

A self-propelled compressor car was equipped with 
clutch, sprocket and chain for driving one pair of 
wheels, and the car could be moved at 12 to 15 miles 
per hour. It had a deck 9 ft. by 5 ft. 5 in. and could 
easily hold twelve men; weighed 2180 lbs., gasoline 
and water 145 lbs., and the hose and tampers 170 lbs. ; 
total weight 2495 lbs. 

In the first test with an average of 26 ties per hour 
a raise of from 2 to 4 in. was accomplished by machine 
work. One mile of track done in 13% days, includ- 
ing 3200 ties, cost $86.40, compared with $282.60 by 
hand. 

In the second test the hand work required 9 days 
for a mile of track and cost $550.80, while the machine 
did it in 13 days at a cost of $417.69. 

The general result of the tests was that the machines 
would accomplish the same work at considerably 



BALLASTING 133 

lower cost than the hand work and with more pernia- 
ment results. ''Two men equipped with a pneumatic 
tamper can tamp more ties than eight or ten men 
using picks and bars." 

A stability test was made on a stretch of track 1600 
ft. long across the Hacken^ack Meadows in 1913. 
' ' Half of the test section was tamped by the usual hand 
methods and half by the pneumatic tamper. At this 
point, owing to yielding foundation, it is difficult to 
maintain the track in proper surface. After six 
months of service under heavy traffic the maximum 
settlement of hand tamped ties was .116 ft. and of the 
machine tamped .063. The corresponding minimum 
figures were .018 and .004, and the figures for average 
settlement were .067 for hand and .033 for machine 
tamped ties respectively. A year's cost record for 
one pneumatic tamper showed an average cost per tie 
tamped of $0,026." 

The proper size of tamping face for different 
kinds of ballast. Mr. H. L. Hicks states that in 
crushed stone ballast which is 2" or more in size, a bar 
with a face 3" by %" gives the best satisfaction ; and 
he recommends a tamping face of 3" by %" for smaller 
stone or gravel, and a tamping face of 3" by 1%" for 
tamping sand, dirt, or cinders. 

A day's work. A little judgment will enable any 
foreman to so arrange the work that, when he and his 
men finish in the evening the track where they were 
working will be in good shape and will remain safe 
for several days if necessary. It is very important 
that all track should be filled in and dressed up as fast 
as it is surfaced in order to preserve a good line on 
the rails. Track which is not filled between the ties 
will not stay in line. 

Ballast in cuts. Only the cleanest of gravel ballast 
should be unloaded in cuts for ballast. Where it is 
necessary (in order to get rid of them in the pit) to 



134 THE THACKMAN'S HELPER 

haul out on the track, together with the gravel, large 
stones, grass, sods, etc., they should always be dumped 
on an embankment where they will assist in strength- 
ening the fill. 

Have the track ready. When ballasting track or 
raising it to surface, the foreman should so arrange 
his work that the track can at all times be readily 
adjusted for the safe passage of trains. He should 
make a ''run-off" at the last rail of the track raised, 
and the outer ends of ties at least should be tamped 
up before a train is allowed to pass over it. The 
length of the "run-off" should be in proportion to the 
height to which the track is raised. Never make a 
''run-off" too short; it is better to flag a train and 
hold it until you are ready than to risk surface- 
bending the rails, or wrecking the train. Foremen 
ballasting track should always protect themselves 
against all trains by keeping a flag out against them. 

High raising. When track is raised more than six 
inches high in order to put ballast under it out of a 
face the foremen employed on the work should be 
thoroughly competent and reliable. One foreman 
should work the larger part of the surfacing gang, 
and with them lift the track, tamp the ties, and do a 
part of the filling, leaving the track behind him with 
a true surface, level, and in good line. Working some 
distance behind the first gang another foreman with a 
smaller crew of men should do the finishing work. 
He should be several days behind the first gang, so 
that any poor tamping or weak places may be fully 
developed. He should carry, besides his other tools, 
a full set of tamping bars, and should raise up all 
depressions in the surface of the track made by trains 
which passed over it after the first gang left it. Every 
piece of track taken up to surface by the second gang, 
should be tamped solid with tamping bars or picks. 

The rails should be lined true, the balance of the 



BALI^STING 135 

gravel filled in, and the sides and center of the track 
dressed up, all surplus ballast being moved to points 
along the line where it is needed to make the shoulder 
of uniform width. 

Gravel for one mile of track. Allowing an average 
of 36 ft. for each car length, including the space be- 
tween the cars, one hundred and fifty cars of gravel 
will reach over one mile of track. If this amount of 
gravel be unloaded by hand, or plowed off from the 
cars, which is a better way, and if the trains average 
about eight yards of gravel to the car, there will be 
gravel ballast deposited along the track equal to six 
inches in thickness, twelve feet wide on top, and 
twelve feet six inches wide at the bottom, for the en- 
tire length of one mile of track. Deduct from the 
above amount of gravel about one-half for filling be- 
tween the track ties and for dressing the center of the 
track after it has been surfaced up, and there is still 
left a balance of about three inches in thickness to be 
put under the bottoms of the track ties. 

It is now customary for large roads to use coal cars 
for handling ballast, averaging about 35 cubic yds. 
per car, with over all length of 40 ft. 

Where the sub-grade is well drained and solid, a 
first-class track can be made by ballasting with half a 
cubic yard per lineal foot of track. The embankment 
should not be less than fourteen feet wide on top, and 
should be made sixteen feet wide, if possible, before 
putting on the gravel, to prevent the ballast from 
being wasted by running down the bank. 

Level track in yards. The tracks in all yards 
should be surfaced level throughout their entire 
length, and all tracks running parallel with each other 
should be of the same height when it is possible 
to have them so. When tracks have once been put to 
a uniformly level surface, no part of them should 
be raised again higher than the rest of the yard un- 



136 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

less it is intended to raise the level of the whole yard. 

Many inexperienced foremen in charge of yards 
think it is necessary every time they repair track to 
surface it a little higher than it was before, which is a 
harmful and senseless policy and should not be toler- 
ated. 

How to level yard tracks. A simple method by 
which to get tracks that run parallel to each other to 
the same height is as follows: 

First, put up the main track properly, then use a 
straight edge from the nearest rail of the adjoining 
track in order to raise it to a level with the main 
track. You can then move to a point several rails 
ahead on the main track and repeat the operation. 
After this you can raise the track on the siding be- 
tween the two points which you have made level with 
the main track. 

Rule: — Run the level and a straight edge on the 
top of two or three stakes located parallel with the 
track to be leveled, and do the same at a place some 
distance from that point. Then sight over the tops of 
the stakes at both points, and have a man drive stakes 
between the two places where you have leveled, until 
the stakes which he has driven are at the same height as 
those you have leveled with the level and straight 
edge. The top level of the stakes will be the level of 
the track rails. In important yards the company's 
engineers generally give level stakes for all tracks. 

Gravel pits. A few words about the gravel pit will 
not be out of place in this book. 

On roads where stone, or other satisfactory ballast 
is scarce, or cannot be procured, a gravel pit along the 
line is very desirable. There are very few roads that 
cannot find at least one or two gravel pits along a 
division. 

After the gravel pit has been purchased, and when 
the work of removing material is about to commence. 



BALLASTING 137 

the foreman in charge should thoroughly examine the 
lay of the land and decide how his track must be laid 
to get the deepest face of gravel to work on. Of 
course, at the same time, the best location for the 
track must be arranged for the accommodation of 
trains, and this should be done with a view to future 
improvements. 

The track should always be longer than the face of 
the gravel in the pit, so that one, ten, or any number 
of cars can be loaded without danger of spoiling the 
line of the pit face. This is very important, because 
where a short track is put in on account of a handy 
place to put in the switch, or for the reason that there 
is not much gravel needed at that time, the face of the 
pit contracts and becomes so short that the loading 
place is like a sink hole in the ground, and it soon be- 
comes difficult for an engine to pull out of the pit 
more than two or three cars at a time, making neces- 
sary six or seven switches to do what could be done 
by one with a good track. Besides this there are 
other reasons why a short track should not be used. 
The men loading the gravel keep lining the track over 
as the bank recedes and there is soon a heavy curve 
in the track which follows around the edge of the 
excavation, so that it is only a short time until the 
track has to be torn up and the work all done over 
again. At this time the loss occasioned by gouging a 
hole in the bank is discovered. If the track is then laid 
along the face of the pit, cars can be loaded only at 
either end of the pit, and there is loss of time from 
placing them, switching, etc., and perhaps the two 
ends of the pit next the track are not long enough to- 
gether to allow a full train of gravel to be loaded at 
once, but there is no help for it except to work at the 
ends, until the gravel can be reached all along the 
track. 

Another argument in favor of a longer track is that 



138 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

the face of the gravel can be increased in depth by 
lowering the track. 

Foremen in charge of loading gravel should see 
that the men load in one place until there is a space 
on that side of the track at least two or three feet 
lower than the ties and wide enough to let the track 
into it. It should then be lined over, enabling the men 
to load on each side of the cars. Every foot that 
the face of gravel can be deepened makes the cost of 
loading it less, and reduces the proportion of top soil 
which mixes with the gravel. 

A steam shovel or locomotive crane, with a suffi- 
cient number of coal or ballast cars, is the best equip- 
ment to use for economically getting out gravel from 
the pit. 

Ballast gang. A gang of forty men organized as 
follows may be used to advantage in ballasting track. 

Number 

Foreman 1 

Assistant Foreman, sighting track 1 

Assistant Foreman, track tampers 1 

FlagTuen, to furnish protection in either direction 2 

Laborers, digging jack holes 1 or 2 

Laborers, operating jacks 4 

Laborers, tamping at jacks 4 

Laborers, holding ties tight to rail 2 

Laborers, driving spikes home 2 

Laborers, back tampers 16 

Laborers, partially filling and dressing track 4 

Water carrier, supplying force mth drinking water .... 1 

Total 40 

Note: When not raising track on account of in- 
terference with traffic or otherwise, the time is to be 
employed in finishing the dressing of track and lining 
the ballast; also in cleaning out and preparing track 
ahead for ballast. 

Depth of ballast. The height to which track is to 
be raised should be fixed by the engineers. The fol- 



BALI^STING 



139 



lowing figure represents a good cross section for sin- 
gle track roadbed together with the diagrams for 
broken stone and gravel ballast. 




'^4" Crown. 

BROKEN STONE. TANGENT. 

\9'-0" 




' Crown 

Greatest elevation figured on is 6" 
BROKEN STONE. CURVE. 




' '^ 4" Crown 

GRAVEL. TANGENT. 

I9-0" 



9-e 



9'fe" 



^ l'llz" i 4-62 to 5'-Zaj Z-A^lz'-4-ii\s'-Zk'to e,'-&A jS z" 




I ^•4-" Crown 

Greatest elevation figured on is 6'. 
GRAVEL. CURVE 

Fig. 23. Eoadbed Sections 



140 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

Tamping. In gravel, granulated slag and cinder 
ballast, tamping picks should be used only at joint 
ties, shovels at all others. With brf)ken stone ballast 
all ties should be tamped with picks from the ends to 
a point twelve inches inside the rail, centers of ties 
to be lightly filled in by use of ballast forks. After 
the first raising about one week should elapse for ties 
to secure a good bearing and then the final surface 
should be given. In resurfacing joint ties they should 
be tamped hard on the joint end, easing off towards 
the center. 

Tools and methods for tamping recommended by 
the American Railway Engineering Association: — 

Earth or clay ballast: Tools: Shovel equipped 
with iron cuff or handle for tamping; broad pointed 
tamping bars. 

Method: Tamp each tie from 18 inches inside of 
the rail to end of tie with handle of shovel or tamping 
bar. If possible, tamp the end of the tie outside of 
rail first and let train pass over before tamping in- 
side of rail ; give special attention to tamping under 
the rail; tamp center of ties loosely with the blade 
of the shovel ; the dirt or clay between the ties should 
be placed in layers and firmly packed with feet or 
otherwise, so that it will quickly shed the water; the 
earth should not be banked above the bottom of the 
ends of the ties; the filling between the ties should 
not touch the rail and should be as high as, or higher 
than, the top of the ties in the middle of the track. 

Cinder ballast (railroad product) : Tools: Shovel, 
tamping bar or tamping pick. 

Method: Same as for gravel. 

Burnt clay ballast: Tools: Shovel only in soft 
material. When burnt very hard, tamping pick or 
bar should be used. 

Method: Tamp 15 inches inside of rail to end of 
tie, tamping end of tie first, letting train pass before 



BALLASTING 141 

tamping inside of rail; tamp center loosely; tamp 
well between the ties; dress ballast same as for earth 
or cinders. 

Broken stone or furnace slag: Tools: Shovel, 
tamping pick, stone fork. 

Method: Tamp 15 inches inside of rail to end of 
tie ; if possible tamp the end of the tie outside of rail 
first and allow train to pass over before tamping in- 
side of rail; tamp well under the rail; tamp well un- 
der ties from end of same ; do not tamp center of tie ; 
fill in between ties to height of top of tie ; bank bal- 
last into shoulder about the end of the ties level with 
top of tie. 

Chats, gravel or chert hallast: Tools: Shovel, 
tamping pick or tamping bar. For light traffic, 
shovel tamping is sufficient. For heavy traffic, the 
tamping pick or tamping bar should be used. The 
tamping bar is recommended instead of the tamping 
pick for ordinary practice. 

Method : Tamp solid from a point 15 inches inside 
of rail to the end of the tie; if possible, tamp the 
end of the tie outside of the rail first and allow train 
to pass over before tamping inside of rail ; care should 
be taken not to disturb the old bed. Tie should be 
tamped solidly from the end, using the pick or tamp- 
ing bar. After train has passed, the center of the 
tie should be loosely tamped with the blade of the 
shovel; dress same as stone ballast. 

General: When not surfacing out of face, as in 
the case of picking up lOw joints or other low places, 
the general level of the track should not be disturbed. 
Where the rails are out of level, but where the differ- 
ence in elevation is not excessive and is uniform over 
long stretches of track, a difference in elevation be- 
tween the two rails of % inch may be permitted to 
continue until such time as the track would ordinarily 
be surfaced out of face. 



VIII 

RENEWAL OP RAILS 

The weight of steel rails in main tracks on rail- 
roads in this country varies from sixty pounds to one 
hundred and forty pounds per yard and although 
there may be some of the iron rail of lighter weights 
in use it is fast becoming obsolete. The introduction 
of heavier power and increased wheel loads on all 
classes of equipment in recent years has also increased 
the necessity for more substantial track and this has 
been secured by the increased use of stone ballast, 
ties of better grade, and heavier rail. The weight of 
rail varies with the requirements of the traffic of the 
particular lines as to speed of trains, weight of cars 
and engines, density of traffic, or a combination of 
these. The Baldwin Locomotive Works rule is that 
each 10 lbs. weight per yard of ordinary steel rail, 
properly supported by cross ties, is capable of sus- 
taining a safe load per wheel of 2240 lbs. This rule 
calls for a rail heavier than the average used on roads 
possessing very large locomotives. On the other hand 
rail calculated by this rule would not be economical 
on roads using small contractors' locomotives; a 
larger rail being required. 

The gross tons of rails required for one mile of 
track is exactly found by multiplying the weights per 
yard by 11 and dividing by 7. An allowance of about 
2% should be made for cutting. 

As a general thing railroads that up to six or ei^ht 
142 



RENEWAL OF RAILS 143 

years ago had 80, 85 and 90 lb. rails for main track 
service, are now supplanting these very rapidly with 
100 lb., 105 lb., 125 lb., and as high as 135 lb. metal. 
The American Railway Engineering Association has 
adopted as standards for use sections of rail from 90 
lbs. to 140 lbs., varying frotoi each other by 10 
lbs. 

The roads are now buying new rail only of the 
heaviest types and sections suitable for use on their 
most important and high speed tracks, the rails re- 
leased by the installation of these being sorted out 
and the best of them used for so called ''main track 
patching"; the next grade, or rails not required for 
such use, are put on slow speed freight tracks or main 
track of branch lines, where traffic is lighter and 
schedules slower. Still another class of steel is used 
in side tracks and yards. Those rails not suitable for 
any of the above purposes are sold for scrap. 

Nothing improves the physical condition and rid- 
ing qualities of a piece of track more than new rail. 
It is one of the principal items of expense on main- 
tenance and should have the attention that its im- 
portance deserves as to care in laying and surfacing 
and afterwards the tightening of bolts in order that 
the maximum life may be secured. If rail be not 
kept in good surface after having been laid it soon 
becomes battered at the joints and kinked, the condi- 
tion of the ballast of course having a great deal to 
do with the standard of excellence of line and surface 
that can be maintained. 

Life of steel rail. The life of rail in main tracks 
varies from one to fifteen years or more, depending 
on the quality, the traffic and the location, whether 
on tangent or curve. 

On tangent track the wear of the two rails is ordi- 
narily the same, but on curve track the wear on one 
rail is generally more than on the other. If there are 



144 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

more slow speed trains than high speed the greater 
part of the load will be supported by the inside or 
low rail of the curve, and the low rail will be worn 
thin, whereas if there is an excess of high speed trains 
the outside or high rail in addition to becoming top 
or surface worn becomes flange or side worn. 

Laying new rail must be done with as little inter- 
ference to traffic as possible, and to accomplish it the 
time of the day when there is the longest period be- 
tween the passage of trains should be selected. The 
new rails should be set up along the ends of the ties 
opposite where they are to go but without being 
coupled together, otherwise there is liability of spoil- 
ing the expansion. It is sometimes permissible to 
slide the rail in by long strings coupled together when 
relaying on tangents, but when relaying on curves 
rails should always be laid one at a time. The rail 
gang can utilize all the time to advantage, and when 
not engaged in actually changing rails on account of 
trains that are due the time can be profitably spent 
in uncoupling old rails or placing rails for applica- 
tion when opportunity offers. The adzing work 
should be done as far as possible, and as many spikes 
and bolts removed or started in advance of the time 
when the track can be secured as can be safely spared. 
Full preparation should be made and everything pos- 
sible attended to before the integrity of the track is 
disturbed, so that when the track is opened the work 
can be rushed in every possible way. 

Rail laying gang. When relaying rail a gang of 
forty men may be employed to advantage, organized 
as follows: 

Force required for laying single rail. 

Number 
of men 

Foreman 1 

Assistant Foremen 2 



RENEWAL OF RAILS 145 

Number 
of men 

Flagmen— 'To furnish protection in either direction .... 2 
Spike Pullers — Pull all spikes on one side to permit old 

rail to be removed 4 

Rail Removers — Carry lining bars and throw out old rail 2 

Adzers — Do all necessary adzing and plug old spike holes 6 

Tongmen — Place new rail in position 8 

Bolters — Apply new joints and tighten bolts 8 

Shimmen — Clean seat for new rail 1 

Carry shim box with thermometer and place proper 

shim for expansion 1 

Spikers — Spike new rail in position 4 

Water Carrier — Supplies force with drinking water 1 

Total 40 

For relaying' both rails at the same time the above 
force should be duplicated with the exception of the 
flagmen. 

When laying two lines of rail one line should not 
be laid until the first has been laid far enough ahead 
to furnish line side for spiking. 

Gaging". When the proper gage can be maintained 
draw spikes on the inside of rail; when rail wear or 
change in design of rail affects the gage, pull spikes 
on the inside of one rail and the outside of the other, 
and where necessary pull the two inside lines and one 
outside line. Proper gage should be made as the new 
rail is laid. 

Expansion. The usual length of rails rolled now 
is 33 ft., and to secure the proper space for expansion 
or contraction a shim box with partitions to hold 
shims of the different sizes required in separate com- 
partments should always be provided. Provision 
should also be made for carrying a thermometer in 
such a way that it will not easily be broken ; the ther- 
mometer should have a tin or metal back and the 
temperature should be taken on the rail. Shims 
should be used of the proper size to give the space re- 



146 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

quired for the different temperatures as shown in the 
following table. 

Allowance for expansion — 33' rails. 

Temperature (Fahrenheit) Allowance. 

—20° to 0° 5/i6 inch 

0° to 25° % 

25.° to 50° Vm « 

50° to 75° 1/8 

75° to 100° i/i6 " 

At temperatures over 100°, rail should be laid close with- 
out bumping. 

To maintain the proper expansion the ties should 
be spaced and slot spikes and rail anchors applied as 
soon as possible to avoid their becoming distorted by 
creeping rail. Various devices for preventing the 
creeping of rail are described in Chapter IX. 

Closing up for trains. The force employed as in- 
dicated for the relaying gang will keep the work going 
continuously, or until necessary to close up the track 
to let trains over. When closing up, make a good 
substantial job, cutting old rails in preference to the 
new ones. The use of switch points for this purpose, 
which have been the cause of many accidents in the 
past, should not be allowed at all. If the rails being 
laid are the same length as the ones removed it may 
be necessary to cut a very short piece from a full 
length rail to make closure. It is therefore a good 
plan to carry two pieces of rail about 10 ft. long, 
equipped with compromise joints if necessary, which 
when laid in will ' ' carry by ' ' so that a good sized piece 
can be cut from a full rail to close up properly. 

Rail sections. The following tables show the sizes 
of rails of different weights per yard and certain in- 
formation relative to the adoption of the different 
types is given. 



RENEWAL OF RAILS 147 

Table, Weight of Rails. 















Miles of 




Wgt. 
)er yard 
Lbs 












single track, 


Feet of 


Rail per mile, 




per 1000 


single track 


' in Tons of 


2240 lbs 




gross tons 


per ton 














of rails, 


of rails 














( No allowance ) 




100 


157.14 = 


157 tons 


, 320 


lbs. 


6.36 


. .. 33.60 


95 


149.29 = 


149 




640 


(( 


6.70 


. .. 35.37 


90 


141.43 = 


141 




960 


« 


7.07 


. .. 37.33 


85 


133.57 = 


133 




1280 


<( 


7.49 


. .. 39.53 


80 


125.71 = 


125 




1600 


a 


7.95 


. .. 42.00 


77% 


121.79 = 


121 




1760 


le 


8.21 


. .. 43.35 


75 


117.86 = 


117 




1920 


cc 


8.48 


. .. 44.80 


70 


110.00 = 


110 




000 


« 


9.09 


. .. 48.00 


68 


106.80 = 


106 




1920 


ce 


9.36 


. .. 49.41 


67 


105.29 = 


105 




640 


ce 


9.50 


. .. 50.15 


65 


102.14 = 


102 




320 


(t 


9.79 


. .. 51.69 


60 


94.29 = 


94 




640 


ce 


10.61 


. .. 56.00 


58 


91.14 = 


91 




320 


i( 


10.97 


. .. 57.94 


56 


88.00 = 


88 




000 


(( 


11.36 


. .. 60.00 


55 


86.43 = 


86 




960 


a 


11.57 


. .. 61.09 


50 


78.57 = 


78 




1280 


(I 


12.73 


. .. 67.20 


45 


70.71 = 


70 




1600 


li 


14.14 


. .. 74.67 


40 


62.86 = 


62 




1920 


ee 


15.91..... 


. .. 84.00 


35 


55.00 = 


55 




000 


« 


18.18 


. .. 96.00 


30 


47.14 = 


47 




320 


(C 


21.21 


...112.00 


25 


39.29 = 


39 




640 


ec 


25.45 


...134.39 


20 


31.43 = 


31 




960 


(C 


31.81 


...168.00 


16 


25.14 = 


25 




320 


a 


39.77 


...210.00 


12 


18.86 = 


18 




1920 


a 


53.03 


...280.00 


8 


12.57^ 


12 




1280 


i( 


79.55 


...420.00 



Rail sections used on steam roads. 

(From ''Steel Rails, Their History, Properties, 
Strength and Manufacture," by William H. Sellew. 
By permission of D. Van Nostrand Co.) 

The early steel rails were naturally made to the 
existing iron pattern. These were generally pear- 
headed in order to prevent the side of the head from 
breaking down and were not adapted to fishing as the 
design prevented the joint from supporting the head. 

The adoption of an improved section was very slow, 



148 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

and, as late as 1881, 119 patterns of steel rails of 27 
different weights per yard were regularly manufac- 
tured, and 180 older patterns were still in use, mak- 
ing a total of nearly 300 different patterns. This 
great variety of sections in use required the mills to 
keep a large number of different rolls in stock, and 
finally, to standardize the design of the rail, the A. S. 
C. E. section. Fig. 24- A, was presented to the society 
on August 2, 1893. These sections met with favor, 
and were adopted by many railroads, so that in a few 
years about two-thirds of the output of the rail mills 
conformed to this design. 

While the A. S. C. E. section was apparently well 
adapted for the light-weight rails of 65 pounds and 
7e5 pounds in use when it was designed, the increase 
in weight on railway wheels soon necessitated a heavier 
rail, and the manufacturers of rails claimed that it 
was difficult to make these heavier rails of the A. S. 
C. E. section due to the thin edge of the base. 

Realizing the importance of the question, the Amer- 
ican Railway Assn. appointed a special committee on 
Standard Rail and Wheel Sections. This committee, 
through a subcommittee on which the manufacturers 
were represented, devoted a large amount of time and 
attention to the matter of sections and specifications 
for steel rails and presented a preliminary report to 
the association, Oct. 1, 1907. 

Accompanying the report of the committee were 
two series of proposed standard sections: Series 
"A" designed to meet the requirements of those who 
advocate a rail with thin head and a high moment of 
inertia, and series "B" to meet the requirements of 
those who think that there should be a narrow, deep 
head, with the moment of inertia a secondary mat- 
ter. See Fig. 24, B and C. 

On June 5, 1907, a joint committee of the Penna. 
R. R. system — Mechanical and Civil Engineers east 



RENEWAL OF RAILS 149 

and west of Pittsburgh — was appointed to study the 
rail question, and on Sept. 20, 1907, their labors re- 
sulted in designs for 85-lb. and 100-lb. rail sections 
(see 24D). 

This section, known as the "P. S. " section, is a 
step farther away from the ^'A" section. It has a 
still heavier head, a narrower base, and thicker flanges 
than the "B" section. The radius of the web is 
smaller, thus producing more of a buttress where the 
head and web join. 

The experience of the Pennsylvania system seems to 
be that with their heavy wheel loads and dense traffic 
more rails fail from crushing and disintegration of 
the head, apparently due to the pounding of the traf- 
fic, than from any other one cause, and accordingly 
in this section the maximum effort has been made to 
strengthen the rail in its weakest point. 

The sections given in Fig. 24, B, C, and D of the 
rails used at the present time show the modifications 
which have been made to meet the criticism of the 
manufacturers in regard to the faults in the design 
of the heavier A. S. C. E. sections. 

These thick base sections, adopted after the studies 
of 1907, cool with less curvature than the former thin 
base types and require less cold straightening. The 
straightening or gagging tends to develop injurious 
strains in the base, and there appears to be a fewer 
number of base failures in the new sections as com- 
pared with the A. S. C. E. design. 

To still further reduce the failures in the base of 
the rail. Dr. P. H. Dudley has designed a section for 
use on the New York Central in which the radius of 
the fillet between the base and the web is increased to 
one inch. 

Laying rail under heavy traffic. Mr. W. F. Rench 
of the P. R. R. recently published the following ex- 
cellent notes in the Ry. Age Gazette : 



STANDARD TEE RAIL SECTIONS 

(by permission of Lefax, Phila.) 



_^Hd-,^S 




H— height E — depth of baae 

B— base A— head angle 

Hd-«-head A2— base angle 

web. S— elope of head 
D — depth of head N — center of web 
" fish 
All dimensions in inches. 









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151 



152 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



A. 
A. S. 



Standard Rail Section of 

C. E. (adopted 1893.) 

100 lbs. per yd. 

Area of Head 4.13 sq. in. 42% 

" " Web 2.06 " " 21% 

" Base 3.63 " " 37% 



B. Standard Rail Section of 
Am. Ry. Assn., Series "A" (rec- 
ommended 1907). 
Area of Head 3.64 sq. in. 36.9% 
" " Web 2.29 " " 23.4% 
3.91 " " 39.7% 



Total 9.82 sq. in. 100% 

Moment of Inertia, 43.8 
Section Modulus, Head, 14.44 
Section Modulus, Base, 16.11 



Total 9.84 sq. in. 100.0% 

Moment of Inertia, 48.94 
'Section Modulus, Head, 15.04 
Section Modulus, Base, 17.78 



C. standard Rail Section of 


D. Standard "P. S. 


" Rail 


Am. Ry. Assn., Series "B" (rec- 


Section of Penna. R. R. 


System 


ommended 1907). 


(adopted 1907). 

100 lbs. per yd. 




Area of Head 3.95 sq. in. 40.2% 


Area of Head 4.09 sq. in. 


41% 


" " Web 1.89 " " 19.2% 


" " Web 1.85 " " 


19% 


" " Base 4.01 " " 40.6% 


" " Base 4.03 " " 


40% 



Total 9.85 sq. in. 100.0% 

Moment of Inertia, 41.3 
Section Modulus, Head, 13.70 
Section Modulus, Base, 15.74 



Total 9.97 sq. in. 100% 

Moment of Inertia, 41.9 
Section Modulus, Head, 13.71 
Section Modulus, Base, 15.91 



Section 


lbs. 
per 




Dimensions 


of Rails, in inches 


Thick- 


(Fig. 24) 




Height 




Width 


ness 




yd. 


Total 


Base 


Web 


Head 


Base 


Head 


of web 


A. S. C. E. ' 


1 80 

90 

100 


^3 ' 


l! 


i* 


IV2 
li%2 

145/64 


5 


21/2 ; 
25/8 1 
23/4 , 


; 1 


A. R. A. ' 
Scries "A" 


: 80 

90 
100 


51/8 1 
5% i 
6 


31/32 

iyi6 


223/32 


IV16 

115^2 

19/16 


45/3 
5J^ 


f 


il 


A. R. A. 
Series "B' 


, 80 

90 

100 


415/16 


1 


255/64 


115^2 
13%4 
145/64 


4%6 


2Vl6 1 

221/32 ' 


ri 


P. S. , 


85 
100 


sivis 


1%2 


il^ ■ 


121/S2 
IIS/16 


45/8 
5 


21/2 1 

243/64 


; 'It 



''On lines of intensive operation where the avail- 
able intervals between trains are never more than 25 
min. and where intervals as low as 12 min. must fre- 
quently be utilized it is of the utmost consequence 
that the preliminary work be done to the last item. 
No single operation that can be completed before the 
track is broken must be omitted. The cutting of a 
closing rail is entirely out of the question and this 
must be provided for beforehand by careful deter- 



RENEWAL OF RAILS 



153 



mination with the steel tape. The number of rails 
that can be laid in a given interval must be known 
and though this is somewhat variable it will be found 
close to a rail a minute for intervals between 10 and 
25 min. 





r-^^'— 1 










^ 


br: .^..- 11 






^12 




i 




^^^-^^^ ^"^■^^---O? 


i, sH- A 





Fig. 24. Standard Rail Sections for Steam Roads 

"The rails must be as near the place where they 
are to be applied as possible and all needed material 
must be close at hand. The distant flagman must be 
trained to receive instantly the flag signal to begin 



154 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

protecting and must respond just as promptly when 
the signal is given to withdraw. The need for im- 
mediate action by each member of the rail laying 
force is no less insistent. 

'^ There is no item of work wherein the matter of 
detail is of such importance as rail renewal, which of 
necessity causes a break in the track. A specific duty 
is laid upon each member of the gang and remains for 
every operation, so that no further line-up is required. 
Maintenance rules generally require that the rails 
shall be laid one at a time and similarly forbid the 
withdrawal of spikes or the removal of bolts in ad- 
vance of the renewal. This severe but necessary re- 
striction can be met by perfect organization. 

''The bolts at the joints to be broken have washers 
added until the nut has just a safe hold. Two of the 
best workmen are assigned to each end of the run to 
be relaid. Ten men with claw bars are delegated to 
remove from the chosen side of the rail the spikes 
which have previously been started to assure their com- 
ing out readily. Eight men with lining bars push the 
old rail aside, two dislodging it, one guiding it across 
the new rail and five lining it away. Four men fol- 
low closely, two with spike mauls and punches to drive 
down the butts of broken spikes, one with an adze and 
one with a stiff broom to sweep aside chips of wood, 
pieces of ballast and spikes. Twelve men with tongs 
put the new rails in place as fast as the old are re- 
moved and 10 men working in pairs apply the splices 
with half their complement of bolts. Two men push 
the rail under the spike heads and spike the joints 
and centers while the 10 men who were pulling spikes 
but who are now free spike the rail upon every other 
tie. Four utility men put the cut rail in place and 
look after the compromise joint in case a different 
section is being laid. The gang which threw out the 
old rail completes the full spiking and the men with 



RENEWAL OF RAILS 155 

the tongs assist in applying the remaining bolts, giv- 
ing them all as full tension as possible. This force 
of men generally consists of two gangs and, in addi- 
tion to foreman and assistants, numbers about 50 men. 
"The preliminary work in renewals of this charac- 
ter largely determines the efficiency of the gang. In 
the event of a different section of rail being used in 
renewal, the first work upon the arrival of the relay- 
ing gang is to remove the tie plates, the ties that were 
without tie plates being adzed down when these are in 
the minority and those surfaced up that carried the 
tie plates when they are in the minority. After this 
is done the detailed surface of the track is given at- 
tention so that the new rail may lie upon as smooth a 
bed as possible. The ties must then be adzed to a 
level seat alongside the rail. The point of beginning 
must next be established and where possible this should 
have especial regard for the existing locations of block 
joints when these cannot be changed so that the in- 
troduction of unusual lengths of rail in the main track 
at isolated points may be avoided. In the event that 
this necessitates laying the rail against the current of 
traffic, temporary rails of the new section are used 
so that the approach ends of the permanent rails will 
not be injured. The rails are then strung out just 
outside the ends of the ties to be as near their final 
positions as possible and incidentally to indicate the 
new positions of the joints for use in the preliminary 
tie spacing. This method is not accurate on sharp 
curves and the position of the joints must be deter- 
mined in such cases by careful measurement with a 
steel tape after the average length of the new rails 
has been carefully ascertained. When the rails are 
set up for the purposes named it would be an unnec- 
essary refinement to use shims and many of the shims 
would surely become lost. It is quite sufficient to 
place a number of the rails, five in summer weather, 



156 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

with their ends in contact and separate each five with 
a spike, which represents the aggregate of the sev- 
eral spaces. 

"When the preliminary spacing is completed so as 
to assure the flanges of the splices entering without 
exception, the word is given and the men line up to 
await the foreman's signal that use of track has been 
given, communicated from the telephone box or from 
his field telephone connected with the despatcher's 
telephone line. The principal protection is the dis- 
tant flagmen, who not only display a red banner but 
place torpedoes on the rail. The signalmen, whose 
duty it is to bond the track further by means of a 
wire shunt the track circuit so as to display the dan- 
ger signal at the nearest signal ; but at the immediate 
location the foreman's red flag is always in evidence 
until replaced by a white one to indicate that all pro- 
tection may be withdrawn and traffic be allowed to 
run as usual. This assumes that all ties are fully 
spiked, all bolts inserted and made tight and at least 
two bond wires are in place at each joint." 



IX 



EFFECTS OF THE WAVE MOTION OF RAIL ON TRACK RAIL 
MOVEMENTS 

As all rail movements are on the principle of the 
lever, there is of necessity an nndulatory motion dur- 
ing the passage of every train, the principle of which 
is illustrated in Fig. 25. The amount of this is de- 
pendent on the condition of the sub-grade, ballast, 
ties, rail and weight of the rolling stock. Any weak- 



Normal Track. 




TracK under passing load. 

Fig. 25. Wave Action of Track Under Wheels 

ness in the drainage, ballast, ties or rail will at once 
show itself when put into use. If not corrected at 
once this will increase, and the destruction it can 
cause is likely to be serious. The less substantial the 
superstructure the greater ballast compression there 
will be, and, of necessity, rough-riding track. 

157 



158 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

If water be permitted to collect under the ties in a 
short time they will churn, which action, unless taken 
care of, will prove destructive. 

Movements or vibrations of any kind are objection- 
able in the track ; and for that reason wood and stone 
are used to absorb these as much as possible. 

The undulatory motion of the rail has the follow- 
ing injurious effects : 

1. Compresses the ties in the ballast. 

2. Churns the ties. 

3. Cuts the ties at the rail base. 

4. Displaces the ballast. 

5. Injures the roadbed. 

6. Injures the rail. 

7. Causes the rail to creep. 

8. Wears the angle bars. 

9. Wears the bolts. 

10. Raises the spikes. 

11. Wears the spikes. 

Ballast compression. The different functions that 
a tie performs must be taken into consideration. 

1. It holds the rails to gage. 

2. Supports the rails. 

3. Distributes the weight of the passing wheel loads 
to the ballast and roadbed. 

4. Resists compression into the ballast. 

It is claimed by many that the ties act as abut- 
ments, and the rail deflections occur between these. 
This was finally proved to be aii error. 

Churning' of ties and displacing of ballast. The 
foundation of all ties being loosely compacted mate- 
rial, any movement of the tie, or what is commonly 
called ''churning of the tie," necessarily throws un- 
equal loading on the ballast at different times, causes 
its compression and movement, and destruction of the 
tie foundation. The wider the ties and the lighter 



EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF EAIL 159 

the rail and the heavier the loads, the greater such 
movement must necessarily be. 

Assume, for instance, two wide ties and a light rail, 
and over them a heavy wheel load, midway between 
the ties. This rail will bend under these conditions 
and take the form of a curve, thus throwing the wheel 
load on the near edge of each tie, producing an ec- 
centric loading of the tie, greater compression under 
the edge of the tie that is loaded than on the opposite 
edge, and, necessarily, a slight movement of the tie 
to adjust itself to these conditions. When the wheel 
moves to the opposite side of either of these ties the 
conditions are reversed, and thus the churning takes 
place. 

Injury to the roadbed is a necessary sequence of 
the ballast displacement, and is augmented by the 
amount of water standing in pools on the bed. 

Injury to the rail. According to Professor Dud- 
ley, rails take a permanent set, as regards wave mo- 
tion, in one of three forms : 

1. Joint low and center high. 

2. Joint and center low, quarter high. 

3. Entire rail wavy. 

The first occurs in rails which are laid with the 
joints square or opposite ; consequently the low places 
are found at the weakest point, the joints, while the 
centers are high. 

The second form is met with in rails which are laid 
with their joints broken. The weak point being the 
joint, it deflects in time, and trouble also appears in 
the opposite rail at the center. On this line of rea- 
soning, if it is low at one point it must be high at 
another, which is the quarter. 

The third form appears in the rail where the ties 
have been tamped unevenly, there being alternate 
hard and soft spots in the bed- 



100 . THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

Wear of angle bars and bolts. At the joints there 
are several parts working independently — ^the two 
angle bars, the bolts, nuts, nut locks, rails, ties, and, 
to a certain extent, the spikes and ballast. Now, the 
least particle of vibratory motion destroys the mutual 
relationship between these parts, and wearing is the 
result. The principal wear is on top and underneath 
the bar, where the rail rests, and, in turn, where the 
bar rests on the rail. The bolt holes are also en- 
larged. The bolts, being a portion of the joint fasten- 
ing, also wear, and in time are unfit for use. 

Raising of spikes. As the vibratory motion of the 
rail takes place, something has to give way. If the 
fastening to the tie is by push bolt or lag screw, the 
tie will be raised with the vibration and ' ' pump ' ' the 
ballast. This action will take place for a while, but 
in time these fastenings will become loose. If the rail 
is held down by a spike, the tendency is to raise it 
an exceedingly small amount, enough to allow for the 
play of the rail. Spikes are either re-enforced under 
the head or perfectly plain. It is at this point that 
the re-enforcement is injurious, for whether it is in 
the back or front of a spike, raising it affords the rail 
an opportunity to move laterally by the amount of ex- 
tra metal in the neck. As the re-enforcement inclines 
toward the vertical axis of the spike as it extends down 
the neck, the further it is extracted from the tie the 
larger the opening left for the spike to fill up ; hence 
the spike is crowded backwards in the hole and the 
rails have a chance to spread. In short, there should 
be no re-enforcement on the neck of a spike. 

Tendency of rail to work into face of tie. When 
the spike is slightly higher than its normal position 
in the tie, the rail has an opportunity to act on the 
tie more than otherwise. This action partakes of 
three different forms: 

1. A straight pressure downwards. 



EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 161 

2. A lateral pressure. 

3. A resultant of these two. 

Wear of spikes. The rail has an opportunity to 
work up and down, wearing the neck of the spike. 



Fig. 26. The P. & M. Anti Rail-Creeper 
Two Simple Parts — No Bolts 

The same action takes place when a spike is not driven 
properly. 

Wear of rails. When a rail is unduly canted all 
the running is done on one side of the head, and, con- 
sequently, this is where the surface wear takes place. 



162 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



Creeping rails. Creeping is caused by the yndula- 
tory motion, and is very destructive to track. Mot 




Fig. 27. The "Dinklage Creep Check' 



only does it buckle the joints and tear apart the bolts, 
but also disturbs the ties, especially those at the joints, 
md displaces the ballast. Thi^ is arrested m part by 



EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 



163 



the slot holes in the angle bar, but anchors of some 
sort should be used in addition. Many devices for 
this purpose are on the market, a number of which 
are illustrated in Figs. 26 to 29 inclusive. In stone 
ballast, tamping ties on the leaving side materially 
assists, as well as driving the outside spikes on the 
leaving side. 

Rail creeping. Mr. G. Van Zandt published, in 




Fig. 28. The Vaughan Rail Anchor 

Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way, the 
following article, which is here given substantially in 
full: 

''Among the peculiar phenomena of the mainte- 
nance of railway track, one of the most interesting 
(and sometimes most perplexing and troublesome) is 
the continual movement of the rails along the ties. 
It has long been observed by trackmen and engineers 
and many interesting accounts have been published in 




strike 
Here 



Strike 
Here 




Fig. 29. The Holdfast Rail Anchor 
164 



EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 165 

regard to this movement with theories accounting for 
the action. 

''Rail creeping has been found to assume aston- 
ishing proportions and to cause a large number of 
wrecks in some localities. An incident often quoted 
in this connection is given by Mr. Thomas Keefer of 
the Canadian Pacific Ry. (Am. Soc. C. E. XIX. 1888) 
who witnessed a movement of over two feet with the 
passage of a single train over a 'muskeg' or swampy 
locality. In many cases it is reported to have moved 
around sharp curves and to have straightened out on 
the following tangent or reversed on a following curve. 

"The results to the track are well known to track- 
men who have to continually combat this tendency. 
'The movement/ says Mr. Camp (Am. Soc. C. E. 
1904), 'causes trouble and expense in many ways. It 
shoves joint ties off their tamped beds upon loose 
ballast; frogs are crowded out of alignment, and 
wrecks are not infrequent from such causes.' Sig- 
nals and switches are put out of order and splice bars 
broken, so that constant inspection is made necessary 
to insure safety of operation. The alignment at cross- 
ings is often disturbed and many irregularities of 
track are due to the accumulative creeping of the rails. 
At summits rails have separated several feet, the 
bolts shearing off or splice bars breaking and track 
crowding in the sags where kinking out of alignment 
frequently occurs. 

"Numerous appliances known as 'anti-creepers' 
have been devised to prevent this movement, some of 
them combining the splice bars with the holding de- 
vice. These generally consist of a plate fastened to 
the rail and held to the tie so that any movement of 
the rail will be retarded by the resistance of the tie 
in the ballast. The result has been unsatisfactory, in 
many cases, because the ties have moved with the rails 
and 'bunched' before the creepers; however where 



166 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

creeping is not excessive ' anti-creepers ' have prevented 
appreciable movement. 

"For obvious reasons it is not desirable to run the 
risk of throwing additional stresses into the bridge 
structures by attempting to hold the creeping rails by 
'anti-creepers.' Hence in many places the rails are 
left free to move across the bridges. In some locali- 
ties there is very little trouble from creeping and no 
provision is made for it. In other places the placing 
of blocks between ties to reduce the wave-motion of 
the rail has been used more or less successfully. In 
some bridges, however, it has been a difficult prob- 
lem, especially with long spans giving considerable 
deflection, and especially where the elasticity of the 
ties beneath adds to this depression by remote support. 
The Eads Bridge across the Mississippi River at St. 
Louis, Mo., has an excessively heavy traffic and has 
the remarkable record of rail creeping, forty-two (42) 
feet in a single month. 

"In this bridge, devices have been made for han- 
dling the rail as its moves, switch points being placed 
where the process begins and ends. At eight points 
on the bridge these 'creepers' are located, requiring 
the services (day and night) of eight men. A full 
description (Sci. Am. Mar. 24, 1900) of the 'Irish^ 
man,' or rail creeper, has been given by the superin- 
tendent of the structure, who states that 'the creep- 
ing occurs not only on the bridge but also on the ap- 
proach trestles. It is always in the direction of the 
traffic. The movement is dependent upon the elas- 
ticity of the track supports and varies with the ton- 
nage passing over the rails. An attempt was made 
at one time to check the movement but the strain on 
the fastenings was sufficient to tear fish-plates in two 
and shear off seven-eighths inch track bolts.' 'A fur- 
ther study of this bridge,' states Mr. J. B. Johnson 
(Journal of Am% of Eng. Soc. Yol IV, Pg. 8, 1885), 



EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 167 

'reveals the secret of the causes of the phenomena. 
The tendency is due to the wave motion, causing the 
rail to be longer than the corresponding linear dis- 
tance. The rail is seen to roll along on its base and 
move as much as the base is longer than the neutral 
axis. ' A careful study of the depressions of the track, 
due to this rolling load, reveals the following : 

' ' ( 1 ) There is first a rising of the rail from the tie 
at a point about ten feet in front of the wheel. 

''(2) A deep and rapid depression follows as the 
load approaches, reaching a maximum under the 
wheel. 

'' (3) Between the wheel loads there is a slight ris- 
ing of the rail varying with the weights and the dis- 
tance between them. 

"(4) The forward motion occurs just in front of 
each wheel. 

''Figure 30 is a diagram showing the motion a^ 
theoretically determined by Mr. Johnson. The load 
advances from P to p and the base is held down by 
the weight upon the rail so there can be no movement 
backward. The frictional hold would probably be 
thirty per cent or more of the weight upon the tie, 
not to mention the grip of the spikes, etc. It is ob- 
vious that while depressed under a wheel load the 
base of the rail is on the circumference of an arc of 
greater radius than the neutral axis. Since the base 
cannot slip the neutral axis must move forward the 
difference between lengths of the arcs. As there is a 
difference between the length of the neutral axis when 
horizontal and when on the curve, in the rolling of 
the wheel load there must be an elongation or a move- 
ment. If there were no wave motion beneath the 
train and the depression were uniform, the depressed 
curved track would evidently be longer than the orig- 
inal horizontal track since the straight line is shorter 
than a curve. It would appear, therefore, that the 



168 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



advance wave and depression, together with the resil- 
ience wave in the rear are the causes of the horizontal 
motion of the rail. 

''On the basis of the above theory, it follows that, 




Figure 

Fig. 30. Wave Motion, Cause of Creeping 

should the rail be supported in some manner from the 
top, it would move in the opposite direction. This 
it has been shown actually to do upon a model con- 
structed for the purpose. This model was prepared 



EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 169 

with a wooden rail mounted on springs and free to 
move. A rolling weight was moved around a circular 
track causing deep depressions. A forward motion 
was very apparent when the rail was supported at 
the base and a similar backward motion when the rail 
was supported from the top. A practical demonstra- 
tion of this action has also appeared in bridges which 
show a marked tendency to move on their supports 
unless held by rigid connections. Through spans are 
thus forced forward and deck spans backward." 

Many contradictions appear among the observations 
of creeping rails ; some observers declare that the outer 
rail on curves creeps more than the inner, whereas 
others claim the reverse, and, similarly, some state 
that on tangents the right hand rails move more than 
those on the other side (in the direction of traffic). 
A typical report of investigation is found in the rec- 
ord of the annual meeting of the Koadmasters' As- 
sociation of America, 1898, a part of which is quoted 
below : 

"Rails creep in the direction of traffic on double 
track lines. This creeping is found to be the greatest 
on down grades and worst where tracks are laid over 
marshes. 

"It has also been ascertained that on curves the 
outer or higher rails creep the more. 

"The cause of creeping track is the rolling load 
passing over it, — producing a wave motion. 

"It is doubtful if a remedy exists or can be 
found. 

"The most common method is to rely upon an- 
chorage. Three-tie joints give best anchorage but do 
not prevent creeping. 

"The best method is to restrict the wave motion, 
which can be done only by having a stiff rail to trans- 
mit weight over greater area of ties and ballast, track 
to be well tied, and ballast dressed off full at the 



170 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

ends of ties (to prevent skewing of ties and tighten- 
ing of gage) but to allow for drainage." 

Reference is made to the experiments of Mr. How- 
ard on the C. B. & Q. R. R. for the determination 
of the rail depressions. ( Watertown Arsenal Reports, 
1905.) A long series of tests was made and the re- 
sults carefully prepared, showing the actual depres- 
sions under different loads with different rails and 
roadbed conditions. It was found that, generally 
speaking and other things being equal, of the three 
kinds of ballast used, viz., stone, gravel and cinders, 
the gravel ballast gave the least average depressions. 
The advance wave was, well demonstrated and found 
to be eight to ten feet in front of the locomotive and 
to rise to a level about one-fourth of one inch above 
the depressed track under the wheel load. A series 
of readings was also made with a spirit level to de- 
termine the slope of the rail as the loads passed over 
it. From these it appears that there is a hump in the 
rail immediately preceding each wheel like that pro- 
duced by sliding a heavy weight over a carpet. This, 
of course, is true for moving loads only, and consider- 
able difference would be found if the locomotive were 
to be let down upon the rail from above by a crane, 
thus giving static depression curves. 

A number of interesting experiments are given by 
Mr. P. H. Dudley, who invented a micrometer for 
measuring the strains in rails. His results are inter- 
esting, revealing the stresses due to these depressions 
and concentrations of weight. He concludes that 
'' heavier rails distribute the weight better," the de- 
sign being an important element. "The dynamic ef- 
fects increase with the roughness of the rails and 
treads" and with the speed, especially on track with 
many irregularities. New rails do not appear to show 
a reduction of wave motion, probably on account of 
their non-conformity to the worn treads of the wheels. 



EFFECTS OP WAVE MOTION OF EAIL 171 

It has been observed that "it requires two years and 
over before heavy rails reach their best condition in 
the track." The readings of the stresses in the rails 
indicate that the ' ' strains increased 14.3 per cent, with 
an increase of speed from two to ten miles per hour." 
Eeverse stresses were recorded between wheels, indi- 
cating compression on the base of the rail. It ap- 
pears, therefore, that the resilience of the track-bed 
tends to bend up the rail as soon as the wheels have 
passed over. It is noticeable that light passenger 
locomotives with wheels separated by greater distance 
give greater wave motion than the heavier freight loco- 
motives with drivers bunched together. 

A very interesting series of experiments is recorded 
by Mr. Wagner (Amer. Soc. C. E., Vol. 53, p. 466, 
1904), giving actual observed experiments of track 
covering long periods of time. The results show that, 

(1) Of the 32 points measured, 21 showed no dif- 
ference between the movements of right and left rails ; 
8 showed more for right and 3 the more for the left. 

(2) In seven of twelve observations, the greatest 
creeping was on down grades ; five on level showed no 
difference. 

(3) More creeping was observed to occur on em- 
bankments or over swampy ground. 

(4) More creeping appears on imperfectly main- 
tained track. 

Mr. W. M. Camp ("Notes on Track," p. 584) states 
that "there are two longitudinal movements on rails; 
one, a molecular movement of expansion or contrac- 
tion in the metal, the other a progressive shifting of 
the rails bodily, commonly known as ' creeping ' or run- 
ning." He states also that the "creeping is most 
rapid during hot weather," and "it is greater on 
double than on single track," and further that it is 
generally in the direction of the traffic. The manner 
of the creeping and the amount depend upon " (1) the 



172 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



character of the ground or foundation for the track; 
(2) the direction in which the train loads are the 
heavier; (3) the proportion of the weight distributed 
on the two rails; (4) the speed of the trains; and (5) 
the manner in which the ties are spiked." 

The actual value of rolling resistance is difficult to 
determine as any data are likely to include some of the 
many other factors which go to make up train re- 
sistance. 




Fia. 3] 



YTTTTTTr'. 

b- 

Figure 

Direction of Rolling Resistance 



"That it is a very insignificant part of train re- 
sistance" is the contention of Mr. Webb (Economics 
of Railway Location, p. 181). Mr. I. P. Church, in 
"Mechanics of Engineering," states that "the word 
'friction' is hardly appropriate except when the road- 
way is perfectly elastic. ' ' Referring to Figure 31 he 
continues : ' ' The track being compressed, its resultant 
pressure is not at vertically under the centre, but 
some distance 0-D in front. The 'rolling-resistance' 
is therefore 



EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 



173 



R 



radius X weight. 



where ^b' is the small distance 0-D." 

Mr. Pambour gives as the result of experiment on 
railroad wheels of cast-iron 39.4 inches in diameter. 

b = .0196 to 0.0216 inches. 

"If the force of resistance or the resultant can be 
assumed as acting normal to the track at the centre of 
the area of contact, we have a triangle of forces one 
angle of which can be approximated by the slope tests 
above mentioned. After working out a series of re- 
sults in this manner, the values shown in the table 
below were obtained. 

Table of rolling resistance or "rail push." 



Wheel Load 
(Axle) 
Pounds 
,11,000 



Pilot 
Driver 



Tender 



26,500 
27,500 
31,300 
28,500 
15,950 



Slope 

Per Cent 
0.0241 

0.0149 
0.0110 
0.0065 

(— )0.0025 
0.0125 
0.0080 
0.0190 

(— )0.0010 



Resistance 



Remarks 



Pounds #/Ton 
22.14 4.02 



32.904 
25.205 
16.984 
-) 8.854 
20.913 
10.633 
25.251 
12.287 



2.48 
1.84 
1.08 
0.03 
2.52 
1.33 
3.17 
1.66 



Total 
Pounds 



Rail 85 lbs. 

A.S.C.E. 
Stone Ballast 
Oak Ties 

93.343 or 1.51#/Ton 



43.510 orl.36#/Ton 



"Similarly with a passenger locomotive and tender 
it was found that with 70-lb. rail and gravel ballast 
the rolling resistance of the engine was 2.21 Ibs./ton 
and of the tender 1.59 Ibs./ton. 

"The above analysis demonstrates the fact that the 
rolling resistance is a small part of the train resistance, 
probably seldom reaching as much as 1 per cent of the 
weight in any well maintained track. Further, on the 
basis of the above analysis of rail creeping, the rolling 
resistance is not all taken up by the rail by 'glancing 
blows,' but is communciated to the track below and 
results in the depression of the earth or 'settling' of 



174 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

the track so commonly observed. It is not improbable 
that a part of this energy is consumed in producing 
the forward movement of the rail, but this would not 
be an important factor in its determination. The 
statement has been made that rolling resistance in- 
creases on curves, but evidently resistance other than 
the 'rolling friction' was taken into consideration and 
it is probable that in a more careful investigation it 
would not be materially different on curves of ordinary 
radius than on tangent. In the light of the above it 
appears improbable 'that there would be no creeping 
with a continuous rail, ' as Mr. Lindenthal asserts. If 
the rolling resistance is the controlling factor, there is 
no reason why a continuous rail would remove creep- 
ing. The concussive and oscillatory factors would be 
materially reduced as with any item improving the 
track condition, but any improvement of the track 
reduces wave-motion as well and in this way only may 
reduce creeping. 

' ' The prevention of rail creeping has always been a 
serious problem of track maintenance. Of the many 
appliances now on the market, few attempt to remove 
the cause of the greatest part of this movement. To 
summarize the conclusions of practice, we find the fol- 
lowing recommendations : 

"(1) Good track. If alignment, drainage, ballast, 
tieplates, spiking, are all first class, much of the creep- 
ing can be prevented. 'Track inspections show that 
almost invariably the rails on the outside of double 
track are subject to greater average deflection.' 
(Camp, Notes on Track, p. 588), and this is due to 
the lack of ballast on the ends of ties and shows the im- 
portance of the suggestions made by the committee of 
the Roadmaster's Association above quoted. 

" (2) The desirability of traffic moving in hoth di- 
rections over the same track and the equalizing of ton- 
nage in each direction. 



EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 175 

''(3) Most of all, the necessity of removing the 
cause of the wave-motion by preventing depressions 
of large amount under wheel loads. 

' ' If the other conditions are well taken care of, then 
the only remaining cause of consequence is the rolling 
of the rail on its base as above described. It is evi- 
dent that to overcome this effect, it is necessary to sup- 
port the rail at such a place above the neutral axis 
that the tendency to move backward due to wave- 
motion will counteract the forward tendency due to 
the difference in length of the curved and the straight 
rail. 

''.This requires a new rail of such shape and a sup- 
port of such design as will fulfill the conditions stated. 
This would also mean a design to meet the special con- 
ditions of each locality where great trouble is found 
with creeping. A rail somewhat approaching this de- 
sign is found in use in England where creeping is 
almost unknown. The rails are not supported by 
the head, but prevented from moving sidewise by 
supports which are wedged against the web directly 
under the head, and they doubtless transmit some of 
the concentration to the tie. (See Fig. 32.) Some 



«r B. 

Fig. 32. English Rail Section to Prevent Creeping 

similar system could be used in localities of much 
creeping and ought to remove the cause of the diffi- 
culty. In the figure it is suggested that 'B' supports 
the rail under the head and leaves the base free to 



176 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

move with the inevitable wave motion, but there would 
be no tendency to move forward. This would re- 
quire the use of the English rail section, which for 
many other reasons might be undesirable. 

''As a practical solution of the problem, on long 
span bridges such as the Eads bridge above mentioned, 
the type of construction shown in Figure 33 is sug- 
gested. This might also be found of advantage in 




Fig. 33. Special Rail Section to Prevent Creeping on 
Bridges 

other places of excessive rail creeping. Two rails 
are turned base to base and bolted together with track 
bolts. The two sections are so selected that the neutral 
axis lies sufficiently below the point of support to 
counteract all tendency to move forward. The sup- 
port is of such design that the weight is well dis- 
tributed and investigation shows that there would be 
no danger of deformation or shear with ordinary rails 
and present loads. 



EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 177 

''Rolling loads upon passing over this track would 
produce some wave motion, but that which would be 
produced, would be taken care of in the backward 
motion of the head of the under rail. All the causes 
would therefore be removed and the conditions would 
be fulfilled to prevent the rail from creeping. 

''Comparative observations have been made upon 
bridges which have stringers directly under the rails 
and those supporting the rails on the ties at some dis- 
tance — as in the support of double track on three 
stringers. A very marked increased creeping is 
noticeable on the design involving the elasticity of the 
ties. 

"In conclusion, it appears that by the close study 
of all the conditions, including the design of the bridge 
floors, and the preparation of the track, practically all 
the rail movement may be eliminated in a way which 
when applied to the bridge spans will not bring unde- 
sirable stresses into the structure. 

"The use of the precautions above noted, together 
with anti-creepers, on good track on which trains are 
run in opposite directions with approximately the 
same tonnage, should completely eliminate the creep- 
ing of the rails and its attendant evils. Too much 
emphasis can not be laid upon the desirability of good 
drainage for it is necessary that the depression of the 
rail, under the wheel load, should be a minimum, and 
this requires that the roadbed should be firm and well 
drained. ' ' 

Practical conclusions by the authors. In com- 
menting upon the above interesting article and giving 
the theoretical reason for the creeping of rails and 
such suggestive theoretical methods for avoiding such 
trouble, we would note that up to date the most satis- 
factory and practical solution of the difficulty has been 
to employ rail anchors or anti-creepers, the judicious 
use of which nearly always results in an entirely satis- 



178 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

factory solution. The number of anchors or anti- 
creepers used should be proportioned to the amount 
of creeping force developed by the conditions of road 
bed and traffic. It need hardly be remarked that while 
it is desirable to have the same amount of tonnage in 
each direction in order to avoid creeping, no railroad is 
going to regulate its business for the purpose of elimi- 
nating the creeping of rails, this being very desirable 
from a laboratory and experimental standpoint, but 
utterly impractical from the point of view of the rail- 
road business. 

The relative cost of maintenance of unanchored 
track and track anchored to prevent creeping of ties 
is shown in an article in the Railway Age Gazette. 
The data are taken from records made on the mainte- 
nance of 3% miles of double tangent track of level 
grade, light gravel ballast, 85 lb. rail and broken 
joints. The heavy traffic was north bound and conse- 
quently all data are based on the north bound track, 
as the creeping tendency here was decided. This 
track had been put in service 14 months before, and 
one mile in the center of the stretch was anchored, 
leaving 1% miles on the north and one mile on the 
south end not anchored. Where the track was an- 
chored, 640 anti-creepers were applied, two per rail 
length, opposite joints against opposite end of joint 
ties. The anti-creepers have received no maintenance 
and have shown no failure, although they had been in 
service 14 months at the time of inspection. 

The kind of work done on the two pieces of track 
in 14 months was as follows : — The anchored track was 
resurfaced once, while the unanchored track was re- 
surfaced twice, the ties thereon were spaced twice and 
the rail driven back twice. 

The total maintenance cost for the mile where the 
anti-creepers were applied, including the cost of anti- 
creepers, is as follows: 



EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF KAIL 179 

Cost of anti-creepers, 640 at llV^c each $112.00 

Applying 640 anti-creepers at i/^c each 3.20 

Kesurfacing, 10 men working 16 days, at $1.55 per day 248.00 

Total $363.20 

The total cost of the next mile north of the mile 
where the anti-creepers were applied, subject to the 
same conditions of traffic, roadbed, etc., but unan- 
chored, is given below: 

Cost of resurfacing twice, each time 10 men, 16 days, 

at $1.55 per day, $248 . $ 496.00 

Cost of respacing ties twice, each time 10 men, 17 days, 

at $1.55 per day, $263.50 527.00 

Cost of driving back rail twice, each time 10 men, 2 

foremen, 6 days, at $1.55 per day, $111.60 223.20 

Total $l,246.-20 

This shows a saving in 14 months of $883 in favor 
of the anchored track. 

It will be noted that the original cost of the anti- 
creepers and of their application have been included 
in the first 14 months. These costs are properly 
chargeable over the total number of years anchors 
are in service, which in all cases is at least as long 
as the life of the rail on which they are applied. 
This would make the saving considerably greater than 
has been estimated. Furthermore, this maintenance 
cost does not include injury done to ties, spikes and 
joints, which was considerable where anchors were 
not applied, as the creeping had pulled the ties badly 
askew, bending or completely destroying the spikes 
and often causing broken joints. Where the anti- 
creepers were applied, the wear and tear were hardly 
worth considering. 



X 

GENERAL FALL TRACK WORK 

Track foremen will find plenty of work to do dur- 
ing the fall months before the ground freezes, prepar- 
ing their sections to go through the long winter 
months with as little repair work as possible. If the 
weather is good more track work can be done in one 
month before the ground freezes than can be per- 
formed during the whole winter. 

Section foremen should find all the places needing 
attention and repair them in the best manner possible. 

Special care should be given to improving the sur- 
face of the track and putting a perfect line and gage 
on the rails. 

The roadbed should be cleared of weeds and grass 
and the ballast along the shoulder of the track and 
between the rails should be dressed up neatly; joint 
fastenings should be made tight, and the ditches in 
all cuts cleaned out. 

Any rotten ties remaining in the track should be 
taken out and replaced by new ones. 

All new rail should be laid before cold weather. 
The joint ties should be spaced properly and ballast 
put under the track, and at other points requiring at- 
tention where new rail is not laid good repair rails 
should be put into the track to replace the ones that 
have become battered. Grass should be cut while still 
green and no rubbish allowed around the wood work 
of bridges, culverts or cattle guards. Rubbish should 
be gathered up and burned. 

180 



GENERAL FALL TRACK WORK 181 

In a prairie country the grass along the right of 
way on both sides of the track should be burned off 
clean as soon as it is dry enough, and the tops of the 
cuts should be burned off first, to prevent the loco- 
motives from setting fires on farm lands adjoining. 
All right of way fences should be examined and re- 
paired and snow fences put in good condition to be 
ready for the first snow storm. All track material 
should be piled at headquarters or regularly desig- 
nated points, a safe distance from the track where it 
cannot cause snow drifts. 

Rails, splices and such other material should be 
raised from the ground and piled upon platforms of 
old ties so that there will be no difficulty in handling 
them after snow falls. 

All ties, fence posts, or lumber should be piled up 
with spaces between the piles so that fire can not com- 
municate to a large quantity at once. Emergency 
rails and angle bars should be placed at the mile posts 
along the section, to be handy in case of broken rails. 

Much of the fall track work is the same as that done 
during the spring or summer, but foremen should be 
particular to do at this season of the year all work 
which can only be imperfectly done in the winter, or 
must wait over until the following spring if not at- 
tended to now. 

Cleaning the right of way. In the latter part of 
the month of July, or before the weeds growing along 
the railroad right of way run to seed, the section fore- 
man should commence mowing and cutting down all 
grass, brush and weeds from the shoulder of the track 
out to the right of way limits. 

The grass and weeds growing around the ends of 
culverts, or close to the bridges, should be mown 
down, while the surrounding grass is still so green 
that it will not burn, in order that the mown grass, 
when dry, may be burnt without danger of the wind 



182 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

spreading the fire, and to prevent other fires from 
reaching the wood work when burning off the right of 
way afterwards. In localities where the sections are 
long and only a small force of men is employed the 
right of way mowing is sometimes done only for a 
short distance out from the shoulder on each side 
along the track, and the balance of the right of way 
is left to be burnt off later in the fall. 

Narrow embankments. Some foremen have a habit 
of digging holes in the embankment just outside 
the ends of the track ties when they want a little 
dirt or ballast to pick up or dress the track. This is all 
wrong, and can be justified only in case the traffic over 
the line is so heavy that it is not advisable to attempt 
to haul earth with a push car. On a mud track if 
material is wanted for this purpose it should be 
taken from the nearest cut with the section push car, 
or if the fill is not very deep the foreman should set 
his men throwing up dirt from outside the bottom of 
the original fill. There the necessary material can be 
procured without injuring the embankment suf- 
ficiently to make it likely to wash away, or weakening 
it as a support for the track. The preference should 
always be given to material from a cut even when the 
cost is a little greater. A double purpose is served by 
removing the surplus which accumulates in the 
ditches and putting it on the fill to strengthen it. 
Of course, where track is ballasted with gravel, or 
other like material, dirt should not be mixed with it, 
but when only a small quantity of material is needed 
it can be taken from places where the ballast is the 
heaviest along the shoulder of the track. Whenever 
any material is taken from a grade or wasted therein, 
such places should be leveled off, dressed and finished 
up in a workmanlike manner. Never leave unsightly 
holes along the track. Both sides of the embankment 
should be of the same width outside the ties, if pos- 



GENERAL FALL TRACK WORK 183 

sible, and grass should be encouraged to grow along 
the slopes, because it offers the best protection against 
weeds and washouts. Section foremen should not at- 
tempt to raise up track on high, narrow fills in order 
to surface it. At such places it is always best to 
pick up and tamp only joints or other low places in 
the rail, and keep the track in good line until you can 
get enough dirt or ballast to leave a good shoulder 
outside the ties after raising up the track to surface. 

Haul out material from cuts. Where the distance 
between cuts is short, and the fill between is high 
and narrow, section foremen should make good wide 
ditches in the cuts, haul out the material from the 
ditches, and distribute it evenly on both sides of the 
track. This work should be done either early in the 
spring, or late in the fall of the year, or when the 
facilities for doing other work are not good. 

To remedy too wide an opening at the joints. 
Track is often laid with too wide an opening at the 
joints, or has excessive opening at certain points due 
to rail creeping, and as a result the ends of the rails 
batter down very quickly and the joint splices often 
break and tear apart, owing to the contraction of the 
rails in extremely cold weather. Track foremen who 
are troubled with this state of affairs should try to 
remedy it at once in the following manner: 

Loosen the bolts in forty or fifty joints and pull out 
slot spikes as necessary, then, in the middle of this 
stretch take out one or two of the rails on each side 
of the track. Have ready to replace the rails that 
you take out, one or two rails the combined length of 
which will be six or eight inches greater than that of 
the rails removed, allowing this length to be a little 
less than the total amount necessary for closing the 
joints. Have your men take one loose rail, and bump 
back the track rails on each side of the opening until 
it is wide enough to admit of putting in the longer 



184 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

rails, then bolt and spike the rails to place, dividing 
the expansion on the other joints afterwards. 

Follow out this method at different points along 
your section wherever you see it is necessary, and 
you will prevent trouble on account of rails tearing 
apart in cold weather, endangering trains and increas- 
ing your responsibility. The rails will wear much 
longer, and you can keep a much better surface on the 
track. Judgment should be exercised in this matter 
so that the expansion be so distributed that there will 
be no danger of making the joints too tight for warm 
weather. 



XI 

BUILDING FENCES 

Building fences. — It is sometimes the duty of sec- 
tion foremen to build fences along the railroad right 
of way limits; and as there are many foremen who 
have had no experience in this branch of work, it will 
not be out of place here to give a good, practical 
method for performing this duty. 

Measure with a tape line from the center of the 
track to the right of way limits, and set a stake in 
the ground. This should be the outside face of the 
fence posts when set. Where the track is straight 
these measurements need be taken only at distances of 
ten or fifteen rods, but around a curve they should 
be taken every fifty or one hundred feet, in order to 
have the fence conform to the line of the track. 

Peel the bark from all fence posts and set their 
centers sixteen feet apart, when not otherwise or- 
dered, so that boards may be nailed on them if desired. 
To line the fence and regulate the distance between 
posts, use a chain or line two hundred feet long for 
straight track, and one hundred feet, or less, for curve 
track. Have tin tags at regular distances on your 
chain, or tie knots in the line to mark where the 
center of each post hole should come, and when the 
line is stretched take a spade and remove a little of 
the sod or top surface of the ground opposite the 
marks on the line as a guide for the men digging the 
post holes. The line may then be moved ahead. 

Set all posts two and one-half feet in the ground, 
185 



186 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



and have the men who are digging make marks on 
their shovels by which to determine the correct 
depth of the postholes, and thus have all the posts 
of a uniform height above the ground. A good way 
to save sighting along straight track is to set a post 
every ten or fifteen rods with a temporary brace, and 
stretch one wire of the fence to use as a guide. 

When putting on wires, if you are not furnished a 
wire stretcher, they may be tightened by taking a 
turn around a lining bar. Stick the point of the bar 




■^■"-'^.k 



Fig. 34. Fence Corner 

in the ground diagonally from you, and pull the top 
of bar towards you and downward. In this way you 
can take up the slack. 

Always put the wire on the farmer's side of the 
fence posts. A good brace should be put in at the end 
of each piece of fence, or at any point where the fence 
turns an angle, also at gates and cattle guards. See 
Figs. 34 and 35. 

Mortice one end of the brace into the top of the 
corner post, and the other end into the bottom of the 
post adjoining, where it enters the ground. Provide 



BUILDING FENCES 



187 



a board with notches cut into it at distances equal to 
the proper spaces between the wires. The wires may 
be hung- in the notches, and the board will keep them 
in position while they are being fastened to the posts. 

Have the men well organized. Divide a gang of 
sixteen about as follows : Assign two men to lay out 
the fence, six to dig post holes, four to set the posts, 
and four to string the wires and fasten them. Move 
the men occasionally from parts of the work which 
are the most advanced to parts which are behind. 
When crossing creeks or marshy places it is well to 



16 -o" 



16 -o" 




ivNi,-//«.<„V„l...^/„t 



Fig. 35. Standard Fence 

turn the fence in at right angles to the end of the 
bridge and string the wires across on the piles. 

Order material as follows : Fence wire, one pound 
for every single wire panel of sixteen feet ; staples, one 
and three-fourths pounds for each hundred pounds of 
wire used. 

When spacing wires, have the bottom ones the closer 
together. For instance, for a five-wire fence four 
and one-half feet high, place bottom wire eight inches 
above the ground; the second wire ten inches above 
the first, and the other three wires each twelve inches 
above the last, or the third wire from the bottom 
could be spaced ten inches above the second, and the 
top wire fourteen inches above the fourth. The latter 
is the best method where it is desirable to fence against 



188 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

all kinds of stock. The tops of fence posts should not 
be more than six inches above the top wire of the 
fence, and all posts when set and tamped solid should 
be in perfect line and at a uniform height from the 
ground. When posts are irregular in length, the sur- 
plus timber should be sawed off if it amounts to four 
or more inches, but where the post is only two or three 
inches too long, the hole may be deepened sufficiently 
to leave it of the proper height when set. 

If a post is two or three inches short fill up the hole 
sufficiently to bring it to the right height above the 
ground, but should it be as much as six inches too 
short, do not use it in the fence except at some place 
where it would answer for a short brace. To regulate 
the height of fence post above the ground, have a 
standard made of the correct length, and nail square 
across the bottom of it a cross piece two feet long, 
which will prevent slight inequalities in the surface 
of the ground from affecting the height when placed 
beside the post. This standard can also be arranged 
to regulate the distance between the boards or wires as 
they are nailed on the fence. 

A fence with the top wire or top board four and 
one-half feet from the ground is a lawful fence in 
most of the States. 

Board fences. In building a board fence, the set- 
ting of posts and nailing on of the boards can be done 
at the same time. Always use the shortest boards to 
measure from one post to the next one to be set; the 
longer boards can be sawn to the proper length. 
Nail the boards on at the outside of the fence. Sev- 
eral men can be nailing on boards at once, ending 
the boards against those last nailed on the adjoining 
panel. On straight track, sighting posts can be set 
at the proper distance from the track, every forty or 
sixty rods ahead of the men digging the post holes, 
but on curve track, to make a good fence and have it 



BUILDING FENCES 189 

in line, every panel post should be measured from 
the center of the track, and a stake set for it. This 
is not much of a job, if two men go along the track 
carrying the tape line stretched from place to place, 
while a third man sets stakes for the posts. By laying 
a board against the two panel posts, it lines the place 
for the middle posts. A bracket, made the proper 
height from the ground with the projections on it 
to fit between the boards, making the spaces the cor- 
rect width, is very handy when building a board 
fence. It makes a much better fence than when the 
spacing is done by guess, and saves measuring the 
spaces. 

If board fence is built with the boards meeting on 
the same side of the post, a batten should be nailed 
over the joint from the ground to the top of the post. 

For a permanent snow fence constructed with posts 
and boards, the posts may be set about fifteen feet four 
inches apart, and the ends of the boards can be nailed 
on opposite sides of each panel post. By this method 
there is a larger amount of the board available for 
nailing when putting them up again after being torn, 
or blown ofi". It also saves the labor of sawing off the 
ends of the boards to make them meet square on the 
post. 

The following table will be useful to foremen, 
when estimating the amount of fencing material re- 
quired to build a board or wire fence : 

Table showing number of posts required. 



Distance 


No. Posts in 


No. 


Posts in 


No. Posts in 


Between Posts 


% Mile. 


y^ 


Mile 


1 Mile. 


8 feet. 


166 




331 


661 


12 " 


111 




221 


441 


16 " 


83 




166 


331 


20 " 


67 




133 


265 


32 " 


42 




83 


166 



190 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

Table showing the number of boards 16' long re- 
quired. 

No. of Boards 

per Panel. One-fourth Mile. One-half Mile. One Mile. 

4 boards 330 660 1320 

5 " 412% 825 1650 

6 " 495 990 1980 

7 " 5771/2 1155 2310 

8 " 660 1320 2640 

9 " 7421/2 1485 2970 
10 " 825 1650 3300 

One 6 inch sixteen foot board contains eight square 
feet of lumber. If a lumber estimate is required, 
multiply the number of boards wanted by eight, and 
the result is the number of feet board measure when 
one inch thick, six inches wide and 16 ft. long. 

Example : — 4 boards per panel for % ^^ile of track 
= 330 X 8 = 2,640 feet B. M. of lumber. 

Weight of nails. 

55, 10 penny, common nails, weigh one pound. 

45, 12 penny, common nails, weigh one pound. 

30, 10 penny, fence nails, weigh one pound. 

28, 12 penny, fence nails, weigh one pound. 

To ascertain the amount of nails wanted to build 
a given length of fence, multiply the number of boards 
by 6, and divide the result by the number of nails to 
the pound. 

Example: — For i/4 mile board fence, 330 boards, 
4 per panel ; number of nails per board 6 ; number of 
fence nails per pound 30 : 330 X 6 =- 1980 ^ 30 
= 66 lbs. 

Weight of fence wire. The average weight of the 
wire now used by railroads is very close to one pound 
per rod for one wire, or about 6 lbs. per 100 feet in 
length. When making estimates for wire fence, about 
10 pounds to the mile of fence may be added for tying, 
splicing, etc. The weight of staples varies according 
to the size used. Seventy II/2 inch staples to the 



BUILDING FENCES 191 

pound is the size most commonly used in building rail- 
road fence. 

A day's labor for one man at building post and 
board fence, where the boards meet on the post, six to 
a panel, and the work of setting the posts is included, 
is about eight to ten panels of fence complete. "When 
the ends of the boards lap on opposite sides of the 
post, thirteen to fifteen panels can be constructed by 
one man in a day. Building a post and wire fence, 
posts one rod apart, and four strands of wire, a man 
can construct about fifteen panels in a day; but a 
great deal depends on the conditions under which the 
work is performed, the quality of material used, and 
the quality or general excellence of the work when 
finished. The results obtained from a man's labor de- 
pend, first, on his intelligence ; next, on his willingness 
to work; and lastly, on his physical endurance. 
These three requisites should always be considered by 
a foreman when employing men ; and when possible he 
should always choose for his men those who possess 
all the qualities mentioned. 

Woven wire fences. Barbed wire fences are gradu- 
ally being replaced by woven wire, particularly in the 
East and in populous districts. They are generally 
made of steel wire of some meshed pattern, as shown 
in Fig. 36, and are fastened to posts properly an- 
chored in the ground. The advantages of a woven 
wire fence are that it can be made to fence against ah 
most any stock, besides which there is less liability to 
accident than with the barbed wire fence, which is 
often injurious to stock. The woven wire fence is also 
readily and economically constructed. 

Comparative cost and serviceability of wood and 
steel fence posts. The majority of American rail- 
ways employ wood posts for right of way fencing. 
Usually the kind of wood employed is that which is 
native to the locality whether or not it is a wood par^ 



192 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



ticularly suitable for such service. These facts, with 
some discussion of the life and cost of wood fence 
posts based on the experience of some 44 American 
railways, are brought out by the report of a special 
committee of the American Railway Engineering As- 
sociation in 1913. We summarize a part of this re- 




Fig'. 36. American Railroad Fence 



port and in particular a comparison of steel and wood 
posts : 

"Wood posts. From the data collected the life of 
wood posts of various kinds actually in use is as 
follows : 

Years. 

Red Cedar 7 to 25 

Cedar 10 to 30 



BUILDING FENCES 193 

Years. 

White Cedar 12 to 17 

Chestnut 10 to 15 

Locust 7 to 20 

Yellow Locust 15 to 30 

Black Locust 10 to 25 

White Oak 7 to 15 

Bois D'Arc 12 to 45 

Catalpa 10 to 25 

Juniper 15 

Mulberry 15 to 20 

''Doubtless some give little heed to the particular 
species of the timber that they use, and assume that 
any species of that genus has about the same life. 
This is manifestly incorrect as is demonstrated by the 
oak family. The inferior grades of oak have a life 
only of from 2 to 4 years, while a good white oak has 
a life in our northern climates of from 10 to 12 years 
at least. Certain classes of oak last much longer in 
their native regions than in other localities to which 
they are transported for use. This principle applies 
with equal force to every other class of timber. 

''In reviewing the replies of the various roads we 
find that the consensus of opinion, based upon expe- 
rience of the users, is that the cost and average life 
of the different classes of timber are as indicated be- 
low: 

Kange. Average. Years. 

Red Cedar 15c to 25c 22c 18 

White Cedar 12c to 15c 14c 15 

Chestnut 10c to 27c 20c 12 

Yellow Locust . 20c to 38c 30c 20 

Black Locust 15c to 25c 20c 20 

White Oak lie to 40c 20c 10 

Bois D'Arc 13c to 17c 15c 25 

Catalpa 15c to 25c 20c 15 

Juniper 6c to 10c 8c 15 

Mulberry 13c to 17c 15c 15 

Climatic influences have an important bearing upon 
this phase of the case, and may lengthen or shorten 



194 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

the life of a particular kind of wood, dependent upon 
locality in which used. It is not feasible in most cases 
to recommend any particular kind of timber for a 
given territory, as the source of supply may be so 
distant as to preclude its use economically. It is the 
prevailing practice to use such timber as is native to 
the country and thus most easily obtainable. 

''It will be observed that the relative cost to life 
of post ranges from I/2 ct. to 2 cts. per year of life, 
the Bois D'Arc and the Juniper being the cheapest 
posts, but so rare that a more general use is impos- 
sible. 

''It was of interest to know to what extent wooden 
posts were subject to destruction by fire. Replies re- 
ceived indicated that this varied by from 1 per cent 
to 5 per cent, with the exception of one road which 
reported a loss of 30 per cent from this cause. We 
think it fair to assume that the average loss by fire is 
around 3 per cent. 

* ' Steel posts. Only two roads so far as we can learn 
make mention of having used any metal posts, and 
then but to a limited extent. In the one case bar iron 
14 X 2 ins. was used and in the other old boiler tubes. 
We have reason to believe, however, that quite a num- 
ber of roads, not replying to our circular, are trying 
out a proprietary metal post. Several styles of steel 
right-of-way fence posts are on the market. Their 
exploitation has just begun in the last year or two, 
and any statement as to their efficiency and economy 
could be but vague and from the manufacturers* 
standpoint alone. Greater experience may demon- 
strate their utility, but thus far we have no data upon 
them, and can only give some computations from one 
of the manufacturers, which might be of interest for 
study from the viewpoint of railroad economy. These 
figures, while prepared for a certain style of post only, 
if reliable, will no doubt be equally accurate for any 



BUILDING FENCES 195 

other style of metal post, built along similar lines, and 
others are generally so designed. In order that the 
membership may have the manufacturers' explanation 
of the merits of the steel post for their further con- 
sideration, we give the statement of the case in sub- 
stance, according to one with whom we have had the 
matter under discussion : 

Steel posts cost 23.03 cents 

Cost of setting 1.30 cents 

Total 24.33 cents 

Estimated life 30 years 

"Based upon above figures, steel posts set one rod 
apart cost 0.81 cents per year. 

''The cost of setting wood posts is estimated at 5.8 
cts. each. The following table is based on wood posts 
costing from nothing up to 20 cts. each, and is in- 
tended to show what the life of wood posts must be at 
different first costs to be as cheap as the steel posts: 

Years it must 

Cost of Cost of Total last to be as 

post. setting. cost. cheap as steel. 

Cents. Cents. Cents. Years. 

5.8 5.8 7.1 

5 5.8 10.8 13.3 

8 5.8 13.8 17. 

10 5.8 15.8 19.5 

12 5.8 17.8 21.9 

15 5.8 20.8 25.6 

17 5.8 22.8 28.1 

18.53 5.8 24.33 - 30. 

20 5.8 25.8 31.8 

"The above figures would indicate that wood posts 
costing 15 cts. would have to have a life of 25.6 years 
and those costing 20 cts. a life of 31.8 years to be as 
cheap as steel. 

* ' The first steel posts are said to have been manufac- 
tured about 15 years ago at Bloomfield, Ind. Others, 



196 THE TRACIOHAN'S HELPER 

doubtless, of different design unknown to the Com- 
mittee were manufactured as long ago and perhaps 
longer, but only during the past twelve years have 
they been given any serious study with a view to 
placing them on the market for ordinary right-of-way 
fencing. Hundreds were taken up and examined to 
discover signs of rust and deterioration at ground line 
or elsewhere. They have been in use at Spencer, 
Worthington, Bloomfield, Ind., and elsewhere in all 
kinds of soil and under all conditions. The investiga- 
tions have resulted in placing them on the market 
during the past year or so. 

''To be of economic worth for right-of-way pro- 
tection, a fence post must possess the following quali- 
ties: Durability, practicability, efficiency, and the 
price must be right. Inquiry develops that one man 
can set in a day from 15 to 35 wooden line posts. To 
be conservative, 30 posts per day per man is assumed 
as the unit of work. Estimating wages at $1.75 per 
day places the cost of setting a wood post at 5.8 cts. 
The cost of post is estimated at 12 cts., resulting in an 
entire outlay of 17.8 cts. Experience demonstrated 
that three men can readily set from 390 to 640 steel 
posts per day, or 130 to 213 per man — 130 posts per 
man is taken as the basis of calculation with wages at 
$1.75 per day. This places the cost for setting a steel 
post at 1.3 cts., cost of steel post 23.03 cts., plus cost 
of setting 1.3 cts., resulting in entire outlay, 24.33 cts. ' ' 

Reinforced concrete posts and signs. Mr. E. F. 
Robinson, Chief Engineer and Mr. G. H. Stewart, 
Master Mason of the B. R. & P. Railroad, have fur- 
nished some very interesting and valuable data in re- 
gard to the manufacture of reinforced signs and posts, 
which were published in the November, 1914, issue of 
Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way, and 
the June 18, 1915, issue of Railway Age Gazette, from 
the latter of which the following description is taken : 



BUILDING FENOES 197 

''This road operates a plant at East Salamanca, N. 
Y., for the manufacture of these articles. Concrete 
fence posts are used universally, except in swamps 
and in places where there is a liability of slides, and 
since their adoption with the necessary concrete 
corner posts and braces they have proved very satis- 
factory. The company plant has manufactured about 
15,000 of these posts, 500 concrete mile posts, 600 con- 
crete property line posts and 100 concrete whistle 
posts. In addition, concrete signal foundations, con- 
crete telephone booths and concrete pipe of various 
sizes are made at this plant. 

''The post and sign plant is housed in a one-story 
building 90 ft. long and 19 ft. wide with an available 
floor space of 1,496 sq. ft. Coils of steam pipe are 
located under the concrete floor and along the sides 
of the building for heating, and a stationary boiler 
is provided in one corner to furnish the necessary 
steam. The cement to be used is stored in one end of 
the building, securely partitioned ofl^ to keep it per- 
fectly dry. The balance of the building is used for 
the manufacture and curing of the posts and signs, 
which are stored here until required for use. No 
special equipment is required in this work other than 
ordinary concrete mixing tools, as the concrete is 
mixed by hand except in a few instances when a large 
amount is to be placed, requiring the use of a mixer 
to keep a supply on hand. The building is served by 
tracks along each side, allowing material to be un- 
loaded and the manufactured articles to be loaded 
with ease. 

"The designs of the principal signs and posts are 
illustrated in the accompanying drawings. The right 
of way fence posts are of the tapered T-section type 
8 ft. long. The flange is 61/2 in. wide and 11/2 in. 
thick at the bottom and 4I/2 in. wide and 1 in. thick 
at the top, while the stem is 6I/2 in. deep and 2% in. 



198 



THE TIIACKMAN'S HELPER 



thick at the base, tapering to 2l^ in. deep and 1% in. 
thick at the top. The reinforcement consists of three 
pieces of i/4-in. round bars 7 ft. 6 in. long, one bar 
being placed in each corner of the post. The line 
wire is attached to these posts by No. 7 soft steel tie 
wires, wrapped three times around the line wire on 
each side of the flange of the post. These wires are 




Property Line Post 



Station Whistle Post. 



MlL£PoST. 



Fig. 37. Details of Concrete Sign Posts 

pulled tight to bite into the corners of the posts, thus 
preventing slipping. 

''The corner posts are 6 in. square and 8 ft. long. 
Notches 1% i^^- deep are cast 6 in. from the top and 
3 ft. 6 in. from the bottom of these posts in which 
the diagonal corner post braces are set, and a slot 
2 in. by 4 in. is provided through the post 6 in. from 
the bottom, into which short anchor bars 'can be 



BUILDING FENOES 199 

placed at right angles to the fence line. All corners 
on these posts are rounded off to a % in. radius. The 
reinforcement consists of four 14 ^^' round bars 7 ft. 
6 in. long. Five of these posts are placed at each 
corner on 7 ft. 6 in. centers, thoroughly braced and 
tied. The braces used with these corner posts are 8 
ft. 2% in. long and 4 in. square, with mitered ends 
to fit into the notches provided in the corner posts. 
These braces are also reinforced with four ^ in. round 
bars 7 ft. 6 in. long, and all corners are rounded to a 
14 in. radius. 

' ' The property line posts, which are set on all prop- 
erty corners, opposite the beginning and the end of all 
curves and at 1,000 ft. intervals on tangents, are 5 in. 
square at the top and 7 in. square at the bottom with 
a length of 5 ft. They are set in the ground 3 ft. 
On one side of the post are moulded the letters *B. R. 
& P. Ry.,' and on the opposite side are the letters 
^PROPERTY LINE.' These letters are 2 in. high. 
The side of the post with the latter lettering is placed 
toward the main track whenever possible. The post 
is reinforced with four pieces of % in. twisted steel 
bars 4 ft. 6 in. long. The corners of the post are 
rounded to a 1 in. radius. 

"The concrete whistle posts, which are set on the 
engineer's side of the track 1320 ft. from highway 
crossings and 7 ft. 6 in. from the near side of the post 
to gage side of the near rail, are 9 ft. 6 in. long, 6 in. 
wide and 4 in. thick at the bottom and 12 in. wide and 
4 in. thick at the top. The latter width is only main- 
tained for a length of 15% in. to provide room for 
the letter 'W.' These posts are set in the ground 
3 ft. 6 in. The letter is 714 in. high, % in. deep and 
11/4 in. wide and is placed only on one side of the 
post, the other side being left blank. This post is 
reinforced with four pieces of i/o in. twisted steel 
bars, 8 ft. 2 in. long and the corners are rounded to a 



200 



THE THACKMAN'S HELPER 



% in. radius. Station whistle posts are identical with 
those described except that a line 8 in. long is cast 
under the letter 'W. ' These signs are placed i/o mi. 
from stations. 

^'The concrete mile posts are made in two widths, 
one for one or two figures and one for three figures. 
The former are 6 in. thick and 12 in. wide and the 
latter 6 in. thick and 14 in. wide. All are 8 ft. 6 in. 
long with the upper 4 in. rounded off from the edges 
to the center. The figures, which are 6 in. high, are 



cNo. 7 soft sfeef wire. 



VFence bar 




Fence Post. 



Elevation of Fence 



Brace. 



Fig. 38. Details of Line and Corner Fence Posts 
and Braces 



set into the posts between two horizontal lines % in. 
wide placed 14 in. and 26 in., respectively, from- the 
top of the post. Both sides of the post are made the 
same. The reinforcement consists of four pieces of 
% in. twisted steel bars 8 ft. long and the corners are 
rounded to a 1 in. radius. These posts are set 3 ft. 
6 in. in the ground, and are placed 10 ft. from the 
center of the post to the gage side of the near rail 
on the right hand side of the track going south from 
Buffalo and Rochester. They are used both on the 
main line and branches. 



BUILDING FENCES 201 

' ' A mixture of 1 part cement and 3 parts fine gravel 
is used in the fence posts, corner posts, and corner 
post braces, while a 1 :2 :4 concrete mixture is used in 
the other cases. The fence posts are cast in gang 
moulds of 30 each, mounted on trucks. Three of 
these batteries are used, giving a capacity of 90 posts 
at one pouring. The other posts and signs described 
are moulded in wooden forms made of 2 in. surfaced 
yellow pine, the parts of the moulds being fastened 
together by hinges and hasps in all cases, except the 
mile post form, which is clamped in position. In 
all cases the forms are constructed so that they can 
be readily removed from the posts after the concrete 
has set sufficiently, which is about 48 hours. After 
removing the posts from the forms they are placed on 
end along timber racks outside of the building for 
one week to cure properly. During this time they 
are sprinkled once a day, or as often as necessary, and 
covered to protect them from the action of the 
weather. At the end of the week, or when they are 
strong enough to permit them to be removed, they are 
corded up in a pile ready for shipment. During the 
winter they are treated in much the same manner with 
the exception that they are not taken out of the build- 
ing until thoroughly cured. The building is kept at 
an even temperature of 60 deg. After the posts are 
removed from the forms, the latter are thoroughly 
cleaned and sparingly coated over with fuel oil to 
prevent the concrete from sticking to the form when 
being removed. In the case of the property line 
post and the whistle post the surface of the concrete 
is rubbed down to a true, even, uniform surface as 
soon as the form is removed, using a small briquette 
and clean water! This briquette is made of 1 part 
of cement and 2 parts of sand mixed with clean 
water. 

''The letters used on these posts are V shaped and 



202 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

indented into the concrete, the indentation being 
painted black in the case of the whistle and mile posts. 
An advantage of this type of letter is that it elimi- 
nates the necessity for restenciling the posts from time 
to time. In the case of the whistle post the letter 
'W and the line, when it is used, are fastened to the 
bottom of the forms and the post made face down. 
The figures and the cross lines on one side of the 
mile posts are secured to the forms, while the corre- 
sponding depressions for the other side of the posts 
are moulded into the concrete from the exposed sur- 
face while it is in the form. The weights and de- 
tailed cost of manufacture of these various posts 
and signs are shown on the accompanying table." 

Cost 







Material 








Cement Aggregate Reinforcement 




Weight Amount Amount Amount 


Total 










lin. 


matl. 


Total 


lb. 


Labor 


Sacks Cost cu ft. 


Cost ft. Cost 


cost 


cost 


Fence post. 87.5 


$0,055 


0.30 $0.07 0.623 


$0.02 2.2.5 $0.09 


$0.18 


$0.23 


Corner post 285 


0.18 


0.81 0.19 1.90 


0.05 30.0 0.12 


0.36 


0.54 


Corner post 












brace ..146 
Property 

line post. 202 


0.15 


0.355 0.08 0.875 


0.03 30.0 0.12 


0.23 


0.38 


0.50 


0.29 0.07 1.65 


0.05 18.0 0.18 


0.30 


0.80 


Whistle 












post ... .410 


1.00 


0.41 0.09 2.31 


0.07 36.66 0.37 


0.53 


1.53 


12-in. mile 












post . . .560 


0.80 


0.88 0.20 5.!64 


0.17 32.00 0.32 


0.69 


1.49 


14-in. mile 












post . . .690 


0.80 


1.15 0.26 6.63 


0.20 32.00 0.32 


0.78 


1.58 



Method of molding reinforced concrete fence 
posts. A reinforced concrete post plant having a 
capacity of 400 posts per day is being successfully 
operated by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy R. R. 
The method of molding fence posts at this plant is 
outlined in a paper by Mr. L. J. Hotchkiss, Assistant 
Bridge Engineer, before the National Association of 
Cement Users. It is stated that while not enough 



BUILDING FENCES 203 

posts have been made to determine the minimum cost 
possible, it seems certain that it will be low enough to 
compete with the price of cedar posts. The rein- 
forced concrete post cannot, however, be so roughly 
handled. It is in no sense fragile and has ample 
strength to withstand all fence loads, but some care 
must be exercised not to cause cracking by throwing 
about. . 

Turning now to the manufacture and use of the 
posts, we abstract from Mr. Hotchkiss' paper as fol- 
lows: ''Figure 39 is a view of the post machine. 
The measuring apparatus consists of two hoppers, one 
for gravel and one for cement. A small conveyor un- 
derneath the hoppers feeds the two materials in proper 
proportions into a small elevator boot. From this it 
is hoisted by a chain of elevator buckets and dropped 
into the mixer at the top of the machine. 

"The mixer is a large shallow bowl with a concave 
bottom. A number of paddles rotate in this bowl 
and mix the concrete, water being sprayed on it from 
a perforated pipe. In the bottom of the mixer is a 
hole which is closed by a form of gate valve, and 
through which concrete is discharged into the molds 
below. Under the mixer is a turntable arrangement 
which holds four molds at a time. There is also a 
jolting device so arranged that as each mold is being 
filled it is alternately raised and dropped through a 
distance of perhaps an inch. This tamps the concrete 
effectually and insures a smooth finish. 

"Two forms of reinforcement are used. The one 
which was used last year is made from sheets of No. 
24 or No. 26 black iron. The sheets are passed 
through a machine which cuts out half the reinforce- 
ment for a post at each pass. At the same time long 
slits are cut in the iron and the edges of the slits 
turned up. Two strips of this material are inserted 
in the mold to form the reinforcement for one post. 



204 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



"It has not been altogether satisfactory, however; 
if the concrete material is a bit too coarse it does not 
run through the slits readily and the posts are not 
well filled. The reinforcement also has a tendency 
to get out of place during filling and is occasionally 
found to be near the center of the post instead of at 
the outside. 




Fig. 39. View of Concrete Post Machine 



''Figure 40 shows an improved style of reinforce- 
ment now coming into use. It is made entirely of 
wire, each wire being crimped to insure a bond with 
the concrete. The material is shipped knocked down, 
as shown at the left of the photograph, and is quickly 
made up into the cages shown at the center. The 
wires may be of such size as needed to give the re- 




Fig. 40. View of Reinforcement for Concrete Posts, Shown 
in Bundle for Shipping and Ready for Placing in Mold 
205 



20€ THE TKACIOIAN'S HELPER 

quired strength. The concrete flows around this re- 
inforcement without obstruction. 

''As the posts are taken out of the machine they 
are placed on a push car. In cold weather they are 
stored in the house for a few days before being taken 
out of doors. In warm weather they are stored in- 
doors or out, as may be most convenient. They are 
removed from the molds a day or two after being 
made and stored against the heavy timber racks until 
ready for shipment or until they are strong enough 
to be corded up in piles. For a week after being 
removed from the molds they are thoroughly wet 
down once a day and in summer they are protected 
from the sun by tarpaulins. 

"The methods of attaching the wire fencing to the 
concrete posts are illustrated by Figs. 41 and 42. 

"Figure 41 illustrates the post and also the method 
of fastening the wires to the posts. By reference to 
the cross sections it will be seen that there is a groove 
in one side of the post and that the holes through 
the posts are offset, being smaller on the grooved side 
of the post. These holes are of such a size that a 
ten penny nail can be pushed through them until the 
head brings up against the offset. The fence wire 
is then placed on top of the projecting end of the 
nail and the latter bent up around the wire until its 
point is curled back into the groove, thus holding the 
wire tight against the post. This work is done with 
a small tool which is shown in successive positions in 
the upper part of the drawing. This is a very cheap 
and effective lastening. One difficulty has developed 
in connection with it, however. The pins with which 
the holes through the post are made are necessarily 
all alike. The post is tapered. As a result the small 
part of the hole through which the shank of the nail 
passes is longer nearer the bottom of the post than 
at the top. Consequently the nails at the top stick 



BUILDING FENCES 



207 



out too far and when bent around the fence wire the 
points strike the bottom of the groove and make it 
difficult to pull the wire up close to the post. A 
tapered strip is now attached to the outside of the 
mold under the heads of the pins. It is of such a 
thickness that the offset in the holes is a uniform dis- 
tance from the grooved side of the post and all nails 



F05t 



Post- 




rpi ^ 


rrtl 




« 










.f- . 


( 

J 


/" ! 


—J 




-^ \ 



Tool for Fastening Wire 



^ 10 d Wire Nail 
Cro55 decfionofPosf 

Fig. 41. Method of Fastening Wire on Grooved Posts 



project the correct distance to insure proper fasten- 
ing of the wire. 

''Another method of fastening the wires is shown 
in Fig. 42. It will be seen that the hole through the 
post is of uniform diameter and a piece of wire with 
one end doubled back is substituted for the nail. The 
other end of the wire projects at the back of the post, 
and by means of the tool shown this is twisted up 
into a cork screw. The fastening has not yet been 



208 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



tried out in practice, but its use on an experimental 
post seems to indicate that it is simple and efficient. 
It was designed for use with a round post having no 
groove. As our molds are all grooved, we expect to 
use it with this type of post. 

"The post molding machine is made by the Na- 
tional Concrete Machinery Co., of Madison, Wis. 

Concrete 
Post, 




Wire-^ 



Fasteninq Wire ^ j. n j. 
^ Concrete Po5t 



'-Reinforcement 



L^;=^ 



M 



Fastening 
- mre 




j:.....XVJ EngS^Contg 



Fig. 42, Method of Fastening Wire on Round Posts 



From information furnished by this company we find 
that the machine requires three men for its operation, 
one man to shovel in the material, one man to take 
away posts and put on empty molds, and one to op- 
erate the machine. These men, it is stated, should 
make 40 posts per hour. 

"If operated in a sand pit so as to save the cost 
of moving sand the posts should be produced at a 
cost of 15 to 20 cts. each, including the five wire re- 
inforcement which costs a fraction less than 7 cts. 
per post." 



XII 

GENERAL. WINTER WORK 

General repairs. There are many kinds of track 
work which should be done during the winter months, 
all of which are important and assist materially to 
lighten and advance the work of the following spring 
and summer. 

In the early part of the winter, when the cold 
weather has contracted the rails, its effect on the 
rail joints should be noticed by the foreman ; all loose 
bolts should be tightened up, and broken or cracked 
joints replaced by good ones. 

All open joints should be closed to the proper 
space and battered rails taken out of the track and 
replaced by good ones. 

Cleaning switches and yard tracks, and flanging 
out of the main track after snow storms, shimming 
track, distributing ties for spring work, opening up 
ditches and culverts, etc., all add to the section fore- 
man's labor, and it requires a man of good judgment 
and energy to keep all of his work done properly at 
the right time and place. 

If the foreman keeps the loose spikes driven down 
to place and good gage on his track, he will be sur- 
prised at the splendid line which he can have on his 
track the following summer, and trains will ride over 
it without that disagreeable side motion of the cars 
which spoils the line and surface of his track, and is 
not conducive to the comfort of passengers. 

Shimming track is a very important kind of win- 

209 



210 THE TPvACI^IAN'S HELPER 

ter work on northern railroads, and should be done 
with a view to keeping straight track level, smooth 
and safe, and the proper elevation of the outer rails 
on curves. 

Shims are placed under the track rails to raise up 
the low places to a good surface. All shims should 
have holes bored through them for the track spikes. 
This can be done by boring the holes through a block 
of straight-grained hard wood, six inches wide by ten 
inches long, and splitting off the shims as thick as 
needed. On account of the difficulty of finding such 
wood in many parts of the country it is best to have 
this work done in shops where odd pieces of timber 
may be utilized for making shims, which can be sawed 
and bored to better advantage there than on the road. 

The top surface of the track tie should be adzed 
off level, especially when there is a groove made by 
the rail. This is necessary to give the rails a solid 
foundation, preserve the correct surface, and prevent 
the shims from breaking. Shims should never be 
placed lengthwise under the rails, because in that po- 
sition they increase the height of the rail without wid- 
ening its base. 

Where shims are used, rail braces should be applied 
against the outside of the rail at every second, third 
or fourth tie, in proportion to the height of the shims. 

High shimming of track is now obsolete and the 
necessity for it should be guarded against by pro- 
viding a remedy in the way of improving the ballast, 
drainage, etc., to remove the cause of heaving track. 

All shimmed track should be watched closely, and 
thinner shims be used to replace the thicker ones as 
fast as the heaved track settles in the spring. Shims 
should not be removed from the track until all heav- 
ing has gone down. "When the rail under wliich there 
are shims is higher than the track each side of it by 
the thickness of the shims, you may remove them as 



GENERAL WINTER WORK 211 

the heaving has all gone out of the ground. Many 
foremen have spoiled nice pieces of track by remov- 
ing the shims and tamping the ties as soon as the frost 
was out to the bottom of the ties. All good shims, 
shim spikes and braces should be put away in the tool 
house every spring and saved for use another year. 

Heaved bridges and culverts. Pile bridges need 
careful watching in the winter season, and whenever 
they are found heaved up out of surface or line the 
bridge carpenters should be promptly notified. In 
some bridges and culverts the piles which have heaved 
must be cut off, and that part of the bridge or the 
culvert lowered to correspond with the track on either 
side of it. Unlike the track in cuts or on fills, some 
piles which heave up in the winter do not settle back 
to place again when the frost goes out of the ground, 
and shims must be put under the caps or stringers 
to keep the bridges up to surface during the summer. 
The greatest danger is to be apprehended where the 
piles in a bridge heave up irregularly, as when only 
one or two piles heave in a bent, or when the piles 
heave up in opposite corners of two different bents. 
This often happens when the piles are driven in deep 
water, as the ice which freezes to them lifts them 
up and should, therefore, always be cut away by the 
trackmen before there is danger of its doing so. 

Report amount of snow. Section foremen should 
ascertain the condition of the track in their charge 
immediately after every snow storm, or wind storm 
that is likely to drift snow upon the track, and report 
the depth and length of snow drifts in all the cuts 
on their sections. It is of the greatest importance 
that snow reports be sent promptly by telegraph in 
order that the officers of the road may be able to 
make necessary preparations to clear the track. 

Snow on side tracks. Section foremen should clear 
away the snow that has drifted upon side tracks as 



212 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

soon as possible after a storm, and the snow on 
switches and in frogs and guard rails should be shov- 
eled off as necessary. This work should never be de- 
layed as trainmen may need to use the switches at any 
time. 

Snow in cuts. During the winter months when 
snow falls or is drifted into cuts to a depth of two 
or more feet, section foremen should take their men 
just as soon as possible after the storm and remove 
from the track sufficient snow at the ends of all drifts 
to leave a clean flange and a clear face of snow, at 
least eighteen inches deep, at both the approach and 
run-out ends of the drift. It is a fact that a great 
many engines, when bucking snow, run off the track 
when coming out of, or running into a snow drift. 
This is generally caused by hard snow or ice in the 
flanges. On being suddenly relieved of the resistance 
of the snow the truck wheels sometimes mount the 
rail on a hard flange-way and are derailed. 

Flanging track. Whenever the track becomes full 
of snow in the winter it is necessary to flange it out. 
Most roads now have flanging machines for this pur- 
pose. These devices may be divided into two classes, 
those directly attached to the locomotive and those 
built into a special car. The former class is obviously 
the best and most economical since it does not neces- 
sarily require a special train for the purpose of flang- 
ing a division, as in the latter class. The Priest 
flanger has proved to be a very serviceable device for 
removing snow. On this device there is nothing that 
can break except the knives, which may suffer if they 
strike a metallic obstruction like a guard rail, but can 
be readily replaced. If the engineer is careful to raise 
the mechanism every time he approaches such an ob- 
struction, the knives will last until they wear out. 
When the flanger is used the only hand flanging that 
the trackmen will have to do will be around frogs and 



GENERAL WINTER WORK 213 

switches and highway crossings, where the knives of 
the flangers had to be raised. The Priest flanger 
has thoroughly flanged track at the head of heavy 
freight trains cutting through twelve inches of fairly 
hard snow, the trains making nearly schedule time. 

Some roads have a proportion of the heaviest loco- 
motives in freight service equipped with pilot plows 
as soon as winter sets in and leave them on until all 
danger from snow is past. These engines, moving 
over the line in regular service, keep the track clear 
down to within a few inches of the rail. If conditions 
are such as to warrant it one of the engines so equipped 
can be started over the road light to open up the 
track and make fairly good wheeling for following 
trains. A helper engine can be added if necessary. 

Opening ditches and culverts. On roads where 
snow lies on the ground during the winter months, sec- 
tion foremen should open up all ditches, culverts, and 
other waterways which pass along or under the track. 
Culverts, which are apt to be covered with snow in the 
winter, can easily be located when the thaw comes, if 
a long stake is dHven close to the mouth of each 
culvert early in the fall of the year before any snow 
falls on the ground. 

In cuts that are full of snow on each side of the 
track, leaving only room enough for trains to pass 
through, a ditch should be made in the snow about six 
feet from the rail on each side of the track so that 
when the water begins to run it will not injure the 
track by running over it. 

Protect your men. AVhen the line becomes block- 
aded and before the snow bucking gang arrives, track- 
men should clean the snow from every alternate rail in 
long, deep cuts where it would be likely to stick the 
snow plow. A look out should be kept so that the men 
in the pits are not caught by the unexpected arrival 
of the train. If the amount of snow in a cut is not 



214 THE TPvACKMAN'S HELPER 

sufficient to stall the type of snow plow used it will be 
a waste of time to do this work. By cleaning the 
snow from alternate rails, as mentioned, and with two 
engines coupled together doing the "bucking," one 
engine will always have a clean rail under it and the 
resistance of the snow will not be great enough to stop 
the plow, no matter how long the cut may be. 

Snow walls. If you have any snow fences for pro- 
tection along the cuts on your section, watch them 
closely, and whenever you find a fence which has been 
drifted full of snow, or nearly so, build with blocks 
of snow, taken from the inside face of the drift, a wall 
four feet high along the top of the highest part of 
the drift. As long as the weather remains cool a wall 
built of blocks of snow will give as good protection to a 
cut as would the same amount of ordinary snow fence. 
Make snow walls strong and thick, and increase their 
height on the worst cuts in proportion to the force of 
men that can be spared to do the work, and use double 
lines of snow wall fifty feet apart where necessary. 

Snow fences. On the majority of northern rail- 
roads the amount of snow-fadl during the winter 
months is not so great as to require the building of 
snow sheds, but to protect the cuts along the track 
from filling with snow, fences are built along the tops 
of the cuts at a sufficient distance from the track to 
catch the snow when it is drifted and prevent it from 
being blown into the cuts and blocking the track. 
The efficiency of a snow fence as a protection against 
snow depends on its strength, durability, height, how 
far it is from the track and the manner in which it is 
arranged along the tops of the cuts. 

Snow fence is not needed on cuts where heavy timber 
or underbrush grows close along each side of the 
track, as the only snow in such cuts falls directly upon 
the track. But where the ground is level for some dis- 
tance from the track, or on a gently rolling prairie, 



GENERAL WINTER WORK ' 215 

cuts are likely to fill up with snow if not properly 
fenced. Snow fences should be set up at such a dis- 
tance from the track that the edge of the snow drift 
forming inside of them will not reach within thirty 
feet of the track when the fence is drifted full. A 
good rule is to set the fence about eleven or twelve 
feet from the track for each foot in height of fence; 
the height of snow fence regulating its distance from 
the track. If a snow fence is set too far from the 
track for its height, the wind, after passing over the 
top of the fence, soon strikes the ground on the inside 
of the fence and gathers all the snow before it into 
the cut, and part of the snow which blows over the 
fence is also carried to the track. 

Storms from the northwest, north and northeast are 
the most prevalent throughout the Northwest, and as 
a general rule the north sides of railroads running 
east and west and the west sides of roads running 
north and south need the most protection from snow. 
Where two snow fences are put up on one side of the 
track they should run parallel with each other. Un- 
less a very large quantity of snow is drifted the out- 
side fence will hold it all. 

Very good results have been attained by setting out 
the snow fence next to the track in the following man- 
ner: If the fence is of ordinary height, set it up 
seventy-five feet from the nearest track rail. Enough 
of the snow fence should run parallel with the track 
to reach the full length of the cut and no more. After 
this part of the fence is up, turn a wing on each end 
of it, approaching the track gradually until the ex- 
treme end of each wing extends 100 feet beyond the 
end of the cut, at a distance of about fifty or sixty feet 
from the track rail. 

When a cut ends abruptly on the beginning of a 
high fill, the wing on that end of the snow fence 
should be turned in toward the track before the end 



216 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

of the cut is reached, or at least soon enough to pro- 
tect the cut from a quartering storm. A snow fence 
built parallel with the track and without a wing on the 
end of it, is of very little use when a storm blows 
nearly parallel with the track, as much of the snow 
on the inside of the fence is apt to be blown into the 
cut. New ties which are received for repairs to track 
the following spring can be distributed and used ad- 
vantageously to make a temporary snow fence on cuts 
where needed. The ties may be laid along in line with 
their ends lapping each other about one foot. Slats or 
pieces of board can then be put across the ends of the 
ties where they lap and a new line of ties laid along on 
top of them until the snow fence is of the proper 
height. 



XIII 

BUCKING SNOW 

General remarks. No one is so well qualified to 
buck snow as he who has had some experience at it, 
and no man should be trusted with full charge of a 
snow plow outfit unless he certainly understands the 
best methods to be employed in opening up the road 
for traffic after a blockade. The man in charge of a 
snow plow outfit should be informed of the exact con- 
dition of the road, the depth of snow, the lengths of 
drifts, and their location as nearly as possible, before 
starting out. Another engine and car, with a con- 
ductor, train crew and shoveling gang, should follow 
close behind the snow plow during the daytime, and 
should be coupled in behind the plow when running 
after dark. 

The second engine should be used as a helper in 
striking deep snow, and to pull out the plow 
engine whenever it is stuck fast in a snowdrift. All 
cars attached to the helper engine should be left be- 
hind on the clear track when both engines run to- 
gether to buck a drift of snow. Never allow two en- 
gines to buck snow with a caboose or other car be- 
tween them, as either arrangement endangers the 
lives of the men on the train. There is no necessity 
for using two engines behind the snow plow to buck 
snow which one engine can throw out. If the snow 
is not too hard one good heavy engine and plow will 
clear the track of a snow drift three to five feet deep, 
and from five to eight hundred feet in length, at one 
run. 

217 



218 THE TRACIOIAN'S HELPER 

Two good locomotives coupled together behind the 
plow, if managed properly, will remove any snow 
which it is advisable to buck. Snow drifts which 
are higher than the plow cannot be cleared from 
the track successfully without first shoveling the 
snow off the top of the drifts. They should be opened 
wide enough to enable the plow to throw out of the cut 
the snow left in it. When the snow is reported hard 
those in charge of snow plow outfits should be very 
careful to have their engines and plow in as perfect 
condition as possible. They should run no risk ; every 
snow drift should be examined before running into it, 
and each end should be shovelled out enough to leave 
a clean flangeway and a face that will let the plow 
enter under the snow. The tendency of hard snow 
is to lift the plow up over the top of the drift and 
throw the engine off the track. Whenever the ends of 
the drifts are not faced as before mentioned there is 
always great danger when entering or leaving short, 
shallow drifts of hard snow; while on the contrary 
there is little or no danger in plowing soft, deep snow 
at high speed. 

The engines with a snow plow outfit should always 
take on water and fuel to their full capacity at every 
point on the road where a supply can be obtained. 
When it is at all probable that progress will be slow 
on account of hard or deep snow, a car loaded with 
coal should be taken along by the helper engine. 

Length of run. In plowing snow the length of run 
and the speed of the engine should always be in pro- 
portion to the depth and length of the snow drifts. If 
the drifts are deep and long, and likely to stick, the 
plow, a good long run should be taken on the clear 
track, so that the plow engine may acquire good speed 
before striking the drift. 

The engineer of the snow plow engine should sound 
the whistle frequently when approaching a cut, so that 



BUCKING SNOW 219 

section men, if working there, would be warned in time 
to get out of the cut. When the snow plow is making 
repeated runs for a big snow drift, the signal to come 
ahead should never be given until all the snow 
shovelers have left the cut. It is very difficult for men 
to climb out of a cut where the snow is deep, and many 
accidents have occurred where approaching trains have 
failed to warn the men in time, or where the men have 
neglected to look out for the danger until it was too 
late. 

Preparing drifts. If necessary, very hard snow 
should be broken up by the men and the crust thrown 
out before striking it with a snow plow. The shock 
felt when striking a hard drift is sometimes very 
great, and often damages the machinery or knocks the 
plow from the track. The force of the concussion may 
be materially lessened by having the men clean a good 
flangeway, and then shovel out of the face and top of 
the drift enough snow to make a gradual incline of 
about one foot to the rod. Besides reducing the force 
of the shock the above method of preparing a hard 
snow drift enables the snow plow to open it for a much 
greater distance at a run. 

Snow plowing with a plow car ahead of a loco- 
motive has been supplanted to a considerable extent 
by the improved rotary snow plows, especially when 
cuts are deep and long and the snow is hard. 

A hot blast gasoline torch for thawing interlocking 
connections is made by the Turner Brass Works of 
Sycamore, 111. 

The tank of the torch is made of heavy gage brass 
tubing 2 ins. in diameter and 5 ft. long. There is a 
burner at one end of the tube and a gasoline valve and 
pressure pump at the opposite end. There is also a 
controlling valve inside the tube which regulates and 
controls the flow of the gasoline. The long tube holds 
the gasoline supplied to the burner. The size of the 



220 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

blast flame is regulated by the control valve. The 
torch and flame can be pointed in any direction de- 
sired. 

The tank has a capacity of three quarts. The con- 
sumption of gasoline is one quart per hour when the 
flame is 2 ins. in diameter at the burner and 12 ins. 
long. The length of the tool over all is 5 ft. 9 ins., 
and it weighs about 8 lbs. The tool operates on the 
same principle as the ordinary gasoline blow torch. 
It gives a heat production equal in amount to that of 
six ordinary blow torches. 

For removing snow and ice from railway tracks, es- 
pecially around the movable portions of the track ac- 
tuated by interlocking plants, these torches will prove 
very useful and economical. Following a recent severe 
sleet and rain storm in Chicago and vicinity, which 
froze up the movable parts of railway tracks, a single 
torch of the character here described was sufficient to 
take care of the large number of switches in the 
Chicago transfer yard of the Chicago Great Western 
R. R. The work formerly done by five or six men by 
old methods was, in this case, performed by one man 
with one of these torches. 

The torch is also well adapted to thawing frozen 
water pipes and hydrants. It is also useful in melt- 
ing the lead out of bell and spigot joints on water 
mains where a section or two of pipe must be removed 
for any cause. The device possesses other obvious 
fields of application, particularly on construction op- 
erations in cold weather. 



XIV 

LAYING OUT CURVES 

Geometrical properties. Curves are spoken of as 
being of a certain degree or radius. The radii of 
curves are inversely proportional to the degrees of 
their curvature. The radius corresponding to any 
degree may be found approximately by dividing 5730 
(the radius of a 1 degree curve) by the degree of 
curve. 

Hence the radius of a 5 degree curve = 5730 -^ 5 
= 1146. 

This rule is very close for radii of not less than 500 
feet. 

The middle ordinate of a chord is the perpendicular 
distance from the middle of the chord to the curve; 
thus M N, Fig. 43, is the middle ordinate of the chord 
CD. 

The middle ordinate may be found, approximately, 
by dividing the square of the chord by eight times the 
radius. 

The chord deflection (in feet )of a 100 foot chord 
may be ascertained (exactly) by dividing 10,000 by the 
radius in feet. The tangent deflection is one half the 
chord deflection. 

To lay out a curve by offsets. In Fig. 43 the line 
H C subtends the angle formed by the tangent A B 
produced to H, with the chord B C, and is called the 
tangent deflection. The line I D, which subtends the 
angle formed by the chord B C produced to I, with 
the chord C D, is called the chord deflection. The 

221 



RADII, ORDINATES AND DEFLECTIONS FOR 100 FEET 
CHORDS. 



Deg. 


Rad. 


Mid. 
Ord. 


Tang. 
Deflec. 


Chord 
Deflec. 


D M. 


FT. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


10 


34377 





oyi6 





1% 





31/2 


20 


17189 





0% 





31/2 





7 


30 


11459 





1%G 





51/4 





101/2 


40 


8594 





1% 





7 


1 


2 


50 


6875 





23/16 





8% 


1 


57/16 


1 


5730 





2% 





101/2 


1 


815/16 


10 


4911 





3Vi6 




0%6 


2 


07/16 


20 


4297 





31/2 




2 


2 


315/16 


30 


3820 





315/16 




311/16 


2 


77/16 


40 


3438 





43/8 




5%6 


2 


107/8 


50 


3125 





413/16 




7%6 


3 


2% 


2 


2865 





51/4 




815/16 


3 


57/8 


10 


2645 





511/16 




1011/16 


3 


9% 


20 


2456 





61/8 


2 


07/16 


4 


07/8 


30 


2292 





69/16 


2 


23/16 


4 


43/8 


40 


2149 





7 


2 


315/16 


4 


77/8 


50 


2022 





77/16 


2 


5II/16 


4 


115/iG 


3 


1910 





m 


2 


77/16 


5 


2l%6 


10 


1810 





85/16 


2 


9%6 


5 


65/16 


20 


1719 





83/4 


2 


10% 


5 


913/16 


30 


1637 





93/16 


3 


OII/16 


6 


15/16 


40 


1563 





9% 


3 


23/8 


6 


43/4 


50 


1495 





IOI/16 


3 


41/8 


6 


81/4 


4 


1433 





101/2 


3 


57/8 


6 


11% 


10 


1375 





107/8 


3 


75/8 


7 


B1/4 


20 


1322 





115/16 


3 


93/s 


7 


63/4 


30 


1274 





1113/16 


3 


111/8 


7 


1014 


40 


1228 




0%6 




07/8 


8 


13/4 


50 


1186 




OII/16 




25/8 


8 


5^i6 


5 


1146 




11/s 




43/8 


8 


8II/16 


10 


1109 




11/2 




6I/16 


9 


03/16 


20 


1075 




2 




7I3/16 


9 


3II/16 


30 


1042 




23/8 




99/16 


9 


71/8 


40 


1012 




2% 




115/16 


9 


105/8 


• 50 


983 




31/4 


5 


II/16 


10 


23/16 


6 


955 




311/16 


5 


215/16' 


10 


55/8 


10 


930 




41/8 


5 


49/16 


10 


91/8 


20 


905 




4%6 


5 


65/16 


11 


09/i6 


30 


882 




5 


5 


8 


11 


4 


40 


860 




5%6 


5 


9% 


11 


71/2 


50 


839 




5% 


5 


111/2 


11 


11 



222 



RADII, ORDINATES AND DEFLECTIONS FOR 100 FEET 
CHORDS — Continued. 



Deg. 


Rad. 


Mid. 
Ord. 


Tang. 
Deflec. 


Chord 
Deflec. 


D. M. 


FT. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


7 


819 




65/16 


6 


11/4 


12 


21/2 


10 


800 




6% 


6 


3 


12 


6 


20 


782 




73/16 


6 


43/4 


12 


91/2 


30 


765 




7% 


6 


6I/2 


13 


1 


40 


748 




81/16 


6 


8I/4 


13 


4%6 


50 


732 




8V2 


6 


10 


13 


8 


8 


717 




815/16 


6 


113/4 


13 


11%6 


10 


702 




93/8 


7 


iVie 


14 


27^ 


20 


688 




913/16 


7 


33/16 


14 


6% 


30 


675 




10V4 


7 


415/16 


14 


97,^ 


40 


662 




1011/16 


7 


6I1/16 


15 


1?^ 


50 


649 




111/8 


7 


87/16 


15 


413/ic 


9 


637 




119/16 


7 


101/8 


15 


85/16 


10 


625 


2 





7 


11% 


15 


1113/16 


20 


615 


2 


OV16 


8 


15/8 


16 


31/4 


30 


604 


2 


0% 


8 


33/8 


16 


63/4 


40 


593 


2 


15/16 


8 


51/s 


16 


101/4 


50 


583 


2 


13/4 


8 


6% 


17 


111/16 


10 


574 


2 


23/16 


8 


85/8- 


17 


53/16 


30 


546 


2 


31,2 


9 


113/16 


18 


3% 


11 


522 


2 


41%3 


9 


7 


19 


2 


30 


499 


2 


61/8 


10 


01/4 


20 


01/2 


12 


478 


2 


7%6 


10 


57/16 


20 


107^ 


30 


459 


2 


83/4 


10 


105/8 


21 


91/4 


13 


442 


2 


IOI/16 


11 


3% 


22 


7II/16 


30 


425 


2 


11% 


11 


9116 


23 


61/8 


14 


410 


3 


OII/16 


12 


21/4 


24 


41/2 


30 


396 


3 


2 


12 


7Vl6 


25 


27^ 


15 


383 


3 


35/16 


13 


05/8 


26 


11/4 ' 


30 


371 


3 


45/8 


13 


51%6 


26 


115/8 


16 


359 


3 


515/16 


13 


11 


27 


10 


30 


348 


3 


71/4 


14 


43/16 


28 


83/8 


17 


338 


3 


85/8 


14 


93/8 


29 


63/4 


18 


320 


3 


111/4 


15 


7% 


31 


37/16 


19 


303 


4 


1% 


16 


6I/16 


33 


01/8 


20 


288 


4 


41/2 


17 


4% 


34 


83/4 


21 


274 


4 


71/8 


18 


2II/16 


86 


5% 


22 


262 


4 


93/4 


19 


1 


38 


2 


23 


251 


5 


07/16 


19 


111/4 


39 


101/2 


24 


240 


5 


3I/16 


20 


91/2 


41 


7 


25 


231 


5 


53/4 


21 


73/4 


43 


31/2 



223 



224 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



number of degrees in the angle I C D, expresses the 
degree of the curve when the chord is 100 ft. 

In the table of Radii, ordinates for a curve contain- 
ing odd minutes can be readily calculated by simple 
proportion. Having these respective distances, any 
intelligent foreman can trace a curve on the ground 
with tolerable accuracy, especially where the ground 
is favorable. 

Suppose it be required to lay out in this manner, a 
four degree curve: — First, find from the table the 
tangent deflection, H C, corresponding to a four-de- 
gree curve, viz, 3 feet 5% inches, and also the chord 







Fig. 43. Elements of Railroad Curve 



deflection, I D, or K E, 6 feet 11% inches. Then from 
the starting point, B, and in line with A B, measure B 
H, equal to 100 feet, and mark the point H. Swing 
the tape around toward B C, keeping the end at B 
flxed, at the same time measure from the point H the 
tangent deflection 3 feet 5% inches, and place a 
stake at C for the first point on the curve. Then 
make C I equal to 100 feet, putting a peg at I, in line 
with those at B and C. Swing the tape around until 
I D is equal to the chord deflection, 6 feet 11% inches. 
Place a stake at D for the second point on the curve. 
In the same manner continue the chord deflection 
until the end of the curve is reached at E. 






LAYING OUT CURVES 225 

In order to pass from the curve at E to the next 
tangent, E G, make E L equal to 100 feet, and put in a 
peg at L in line with those at D and E. Swing the 
tape around until F L is equal to the tangent deflec- 
tion. Then will a line passing through E and F be 
tangent to the curve at E. 

Difference in length between the inner and outer 
rails of a curve. There are three different methods 
for finding this difference: 1st. The difference in 
length may be taken at 1^2 inches, per degree of 
curve per 100 feet. 

Example : — To find the difference in length between 
the inner and outer rails on 600 ft. of 10 degree curve. 
Here 10 x 1^/32 x 6 -= 5.154 ft.= 5 ft. 1% inches. 

2d. Divide the distance from center to center of the 
rails (ordinarily 4 feet 11 inches, or 4.9167 feet) by the 
radius of the curve, and multiply the result by the 
length of the curve in feet. 

Example : — Taking the same example 600 ft. of 10 
deg. curve, (4.9167^573.7) x 600 = 5.142 ft.= 5 ft. 
1% inches. 

3d. Multiply the excess for a whole circumference, 
by the total number of degrees in the curve, and divide 
the product by 360. The excess for the whole circum- 
ference, no matter what the degree of curve, is equal to 
twice the distance between rail centers multiplied by 
3.1416. 

Where the distance between rail centers is 4 feet 11 
inches, the excess for a whole circle is 30.892 feet. 

Example : — Taking the same example 600 feet of 10 
deg. curve (30.892 x 600) -^ 360 = 5.148 ft.= 5 ft.13/4 
inches. 

For the easier curves that are laid to exact gage the 
first method is the simplest. On sharper curves, where 
the gage is widened, or for narrow gage lines, use the 
second method, or prepare a table by the third method. 



XV 

ELEVATION OF CURVES 

General remarks. The rails o^ straight track are 
kept level so that the weight of trains may be borne 
equally by both rails and to insure easy riding for 
trains. If one rail were lower than the other it would 
receive more than half the load, which would cause the 
ends of the ties on that side to sink still lower in the 
roadbed and then, because resting on an incline, the 
track would be moved to the lower side and out of line 
by the swinging of trains. The same is true, of course, 
if the weight on one rail is greater than the other ; the 
line and surface of the track will soon show kinks and 
swings. 

Centrifugal force. With a train standing still on a 
curve the rails must be level for each to bear half the 
weight, but when the train begins to move some extra 
weight will be thrown on the outer rail by the centri- 
fugal force, which develops with the speed of the train. 
This centrifugal force is the resistance offered by all 
moving bodies to anything which may be interposed to 
change their course from a straight line, and may be 
illustrated by throwing a stone at a board set at an 
angle of say 45 degrees. If the stone misses the board 
it will move onward in a straight line until forced to 
the ground by the attraction of gravity. But if it 
strikes the board it is deflected from its course and the 
dent made in the board shows in a way the amount of 
force offered by the stone in resisting the effort of the 
board to change its course to that extent. On rail- 

226 



ELEVATION OF CURVES 227 

roads, the curves are made long and as easy as pos- 
sible, so that the destructive force shown by the impact 
of the stone against the board may be considerably re- 
duced by distributing it over several hundred feet of 
track. 

Centripetal force. This lengthening of the curve 
being insufficient, the outer rail of the curve is elevated 
so that the centripetal force set up thereby may 
counteract the remaining centrifugal force. The 
centripetal force in this case is simply the force of 
gravity, which tends to tip the leaning cars over to- 
ward the inside of the curve. Now, when the curve is 
elevated so that these two forces exactly balance each 
other, the weight of a moving train will be supported 
equally by the two rails. If the elevation of a curve 
is just right for a speed of forty miles per hour, it is 
evident that trains running sixty miles per hour will 
press laterally against the outer rail, and if this pres- 
sure be great it may throw the track out of line or 
spread the rails. On the other hand, with trains run- 
ning only twenty miles per hour the weight would be 
greatest on the lower rail, and while it would tend to 
depress the rail still more, and perhaps develop swings 
when the ballast is weak, it would not spread the 
track. 

Effect of speed on elevation. The elevation neces- 
sary on curves depends on the speed and on the de- 
gree of curve. For instance, if a four-degree curve re- 
quires 7 inch elevation for speed of fifty miles per 
hour, for a speed of twenty-five miles per hour it would 
require not 31/2 inches but only 1% inches to balance 
the weight of trains. This may be illustrated by Fig. 
44. 

A weight B is suspended from a rigid support S by 
a cord A. By giving the weight a circular motion it 
will describe a circle C around a center E, and the 
angle of the cord A B will show what elevation would 




^^L^lCyjci^ 



Fig. 44. Effect of Speed on Elevation of Curves 
228 



ELEVATION OF CURVES 229 

be required if the circle C were a track in order to dis- 
tribute the weight of B if it were a car bearing equally 
on both rails at a given speed ; that is, the level of the 
rails should be at right angles to the line S B to give 
the curve the proper elevation for the rate of speed 
at which the weight B moves around the circle. Sup- 
pose that circle C represents a four-degree curve and 
the inner circle D. with but half the radius of C, repre- 
sents an eight-degree curve. Now, if the weight B 
moves around the outer, or four-degree, curve, in say 
four seconds, it will revolve in continually decreasing 
circles, but always in the same period of time, and will 
move around the inner circle, or the eight-degree curve, 
in four seconds also. But the inner circle being but 
one-half the circumference of the outer, it follows that 
the speed of the weight is reduced one-half. The posi- 
tion of the dotted line shows that the angle of the 
cord from the perpendicular has been reduced one- 
half also, and this indicates that the elevation of curve 
D should be one-half that of curve C. Now suppose 
weight B is a car traveling around four-degree curve C 
at fifty miles per hour, and the angle of the cord S B 
shows that an elevation of 7 inches is necessary to 
bring the level of the rails to a right angle with the 
cord, then when the car moves around eight-degree D 
it is going at the rate of twenty-five miles per hour, 
and the elevation necessary, as shown by dotted line, is 
half that of the outer curve, or 3^2 inches; and, if an 
eight-degree curve should be elevated 3^/2 inches for a 
speed of twenty-five miles per hour, a four-degree 
curve should be elevated only 1% inch for the same 
speed, as previously stated. 

It requires more than a passing thought to under- 
stand the two elements that must be considered in cal- 
culating elevation. One is increase of speed and the 
other increase of curvature. In one case elevation 
should increase in exact proportion to the increase of 



230 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

curvature where the rate of speed is the same. In the 
other, if the speed is increased say two times, the ele- 
vation should be increased four times where the curva- 
ture is the same. This explains the reason for giving 
such light elevation in yards and other places where 
the speed does not exceed twenty-five miles per hour, 
in proportion to the elevation given main tracks when 
the speed is fifty miles per hour. In fact, some roads, 
while giving liberal elevation on main line curves, 
allow little or none in yards. 

How to calculate the elevation. While the theory 
of elevation is easily understood, the application in 
practice brings in the speed factor, which is more or 
less uncertain, as trains will run at different speed. 
The practice is to elevate for the highest speed at 
which trains are to be run over the particular piece of 
track, and if the curvature requires an elevation be- 
yond the prescribed maximum (some roads specify 6" 
and others 8") the only alternative is to reduce the 
speed of the fastest trains. 

The correct rule, deduced from Mechanics, is 

17 _ v'g 



32.16 R 



the result being in feet or fractions of a foot. V^ 
means the square of the velocity in feet per second. 
This should be multiplied by g, the gage, which in this 
case is the distance between points supporting the 
wheels, or from the center of one rail head to the 
center of the other, say 5 feet, instead of 4' 8%'^ and 
the result, divided by the product of 32.16, which 
represents the intensity of force of gravity, multiplied 
by R, or radius of the curve in feet, will be the eleva- 
tion expressed in feet, or fraction of a foot. That 
the rule may be understood by all, the following ex- 
amples are made as plain as possible. 
Example : — ^What elevation should be given a four- 



ELEVATION OF CURVES 231 

degree curve for a speed of sixty miles per hour? In 
this case the velocity is 88 feet per second and the 
radius of this curve 1433 feet ; therefore, 88 is multi- 
plied by 88, and the result by the gage 5 feet t= 38720 ; 
this is divided by 32.16 multiplied by radius 1433 = 
46085 

38720 ^, ,^. , 

ft. = 10 inches. 



46085 



What elevation should be given a four-degree curve 
for a speed of thirty miles per hour, velocity 44 feet 
per second? 

44 X 44 X 5 = 9680 



32.16 X 1433 = 46085 



ft. = 21^ inches. 



In this example the result follows closely the prac- 
tice of trackmen who give % inch per degree for a 
speed of thirty miles per hour, but in the former ex- 
ample the result, 10 inches, for a four-degree curve for 
a speed of sixty miles per hour is more than it is good 
practice to put in the track not only because the curve 
resistance for the slower trains and the wear on the 
low rail would be excessive, but because the center of 
gravity of any cars or locomotives that happen to stop 
on the track would be too far in. Consequently, if the 
maximum elevation allowed is eight inches the speed 
around the four-degree curve should be reduced to 
about fifty-two miles per hour, and if the maximum 
elevation permitted is six inches the speed should be 
reduced to forty-seven miles per hour. 

Curving rails. Bend or curve the rail through its 
entire length until the middle ordinate of the rail 
equals as many quarter inches as there are degrees in 
the curve for which you are preparing it. To ascer- 
tain this, stretch a string between the extreme points 
of the rail on the gage side and measure the distance 
from the center of the string to the gage side of the 



232 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



rail at its center. For foremen who have not had 
much practice in curving rails it is best to also meas- 
ure the distance from the string to the rail at the quar- 
ters, seven and one-half feet from the end of a 30-foot 
rail, and this distance should be three-quarters of what 
it is at the center of the rail. By measurements taken 
at the quarters it is generally easy to detect a kink 
in the rail, which should always be taken out. Rails 
which have a true curve will hold their place in the 
track ready for spiking. The more accurate the curve 
of rails, the less the amount of lining that the track 
will need afterward. 

Table of elevation of outer rail on curves in inches. 

Speed in Miles per Hour 



Degree 

of 
Curve 


CD 

*g 


02 

o 






s 

CO 


o 




CO 
a; 

s 

o 
to 


m 


Of! 

i 


1 .. . 

2 ... 


■ % 

■ % 

■ % 
. 1 

• IVs 

. 1% 

■ 1% 

• ly. 

• 1% 

• lys 


V2 
% 
1 

iy4 
;% 

IVs 
^Vs 
2% 
2% 

2y8 
3y8 


% 

Vs 

iy4 

1% 

2 

2y. 
2y8 
3y4 

3% 

4y8 

^V2 


% 
lys 
1% 

2% 
3 

3y2 

4y8 

4% 

5y8 


1% 

2% 

3y4 

4 

4y8 

5% 


lys 
2y8 
3y8 
4y4 

5y4 


1% 

2% 
4 

5% 


1% 
3y4 

4% 


2 

4 


2% 
4% 


3 ... 


6 


7y8 


4 . . . 


6% 


8 




5 ... 


6% 


8y4 




6 ... 


6y4 


8 




7 ... 


7% 




8 ... 


6y. 




9 ... 
10 ... 


7y4 
sys 




11 ... 


6y. 




12 ... 


7y8 





Note. — The figures above the heavy black line are the ones 
ordinarily used in practice. 



ELEVATION OE CURVES 



233 



Rail benders. There are two general types of rail 
benders, one operated by the section men by hand and 
the other by power mounted on a flat car, the rails 
being pulled through the bender from another flat car 
to a car on which they are stored or from which they 
are distributed upon the ground for laying. The 
power for doing the pulling may be obtained either 
from the locomotive or a hoisting engine mounted on 




Fig. 45. Vaughan Eail Bender 



another car. The common type of curver consists of a 
semicircular steel yoke, a strap connecting the jaws of 
the yoke and a plunger between the yoke and the strap, 
whose position can be regulated by a threaded end 
which passes through the yoke and a nut abutting 
against it. The curving is accomplished by the pres- 
sure upon the side of the rail of three wheels, two of 
which are located at the intersections of the strap and 
the yoke, and the third is carried by the plunger. The 



234 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

rails are pulled between these wheels, the amount of 
curve being regulated by the position of the plunger. 

With one of these machines, described in the Decem- 
ber 18, 1914 number of the Railway Age Gazette, it 
was found that 20 rails per hour or 200 per day could 




Fig. 46. Superior Reversible Rail Bender 

be curved at an expense of about $40 per day or $0.20 
for a 33-ft. rail. The force required for operation was 
eight men and a foreman, assisted by a locomotive. 
For curving rails in very large quantities a more eco- 
nomical method would be to utilize a platform with a 



ELEVATION OE CURVES 235 

Middle ordinates in inches for curving rails. 



Degree 


Radius 




Length of Rails 


in Feet 




of Curve 


in Feet 


33 


30 


28 


26 


24 


22 


20 


0°30' 


11459. 


%2 


Vs 


3/^2 


5/64 


Vie 


%4. 


%4 


1° 00' 


5730. 


%2 


V4. 


3/16 


5/^2 


Vs 


Vs 


%2 


1° 30' 


3820. 


27/64 


3/8 


5/16 


V4 


%2 


3/16 


5/^2 


2° 00' 


2865. 


3%4 


15/^2 


13/^2 


11/b 


1%4 


y* 


1%4 


2° 30' 


2292. 


^%4 


1%2 


33/64 


7/16 


% 


21/64 


17/64 


3° 00' 


1910. 


5%4 


4%4 


3%4 


17^2 


7/16 


% 


5/16 


3° 30' 


1637. 




27/^2 


47/64 


% 


3%4 


7/16 


% 


4° 00' 


1433. 


1 %4 


61/64 


53/64 


23^ 


1%2 


V2 


27/64 


4° 30' 


1274. 


1%2 


1 1/16 


5%4 


51/64 


43/64 


9/16 


15^2 


5° 00' 


1146. 


127/64 


13/16 


1 1/b 


57/64 


% 


41/64 


17/b 


5° 30' 


1042. 


1 %6 


11%4 


1 Vs 


63/64 


27/k 


45/64 


37/64 


6° 00' 


955.4 


123,^2 


113/^2 


1 7/^2 


1 I/16 


2%2 


4%4 


% 


6° 30' 


881.9 


1 7/8 


117/32 


lll/b 


1 5^2 


63^64 


53/64 


11/16 


7° 00' 


819.0 


2 


141/64 


1 7/16 


1 y* 


1 I/16 


57/64 


47/64 


7° 30' 


764.5 


2%4 


1 % 


117/^2 


121/64 


1 Vs 


61/64 


25/62 


8° 00' 


716.8 


2%2 


157/64 


141/64 


127/64 


11%4 


1 1/64 


27,62 


8° 30' 


674.7 


227/64 


2 


147/64 


133/64 


117/64 


1 5k 


57/64 


9° 00' 


637.3 


2%6 


2%2 


127/32 


11%2 


111/32 


1 %4 


15/16 


9° 30' 


603.8 


24%4 


2 1/4 


161/64 


III/16 


127/64 


1 7^2 


1 


10° 00' 


573.7 


227/32 


223/64 


2 3/64 


125/32 


1 V2 


117/64 


1 %i 


11° 


521.7 


3 %4 


21%2 


2 1/4 


161/64 


143/64 


113/b 


I 5/32 


12° 


478.3 


327/64 


25%4 


215^2 


2 %4 


113/16 


117/^2 


117/64 


13° 


441.7 


345/64 


3 3/64 


221/32 


21%4 


161/64 


121/^2 


123/64 


14° 


410.3 


36%4 


31%4 


2 Vs 


231/64 


2 3^2 


125/^2 


115/32 


15° 


383.1 


417/64 


335/64 


3 5/64 


243/64 


2 1/4 


12%2 


137/64 


16° 


359.3 


435/64 


3 34 


3 %2 


253/64 


213/32 


2 3/64 


14%4 


17° 


338.3 


42%2 


4 


331/64 


3 %2 


2 9/16 


2 5/32 


125/32 


18° 


319.6 


5 Vs 


47/32 


343/64 


33/16 


245/64 


3%2 


1 Vs 


19° 


302.9 


51%2 


42%4 


357/64 


323/64 


255/64 


213/b 


16%4 


20° 


287.9 


543/64 


445/64 


4%2 


335/64 


3 


235/64 


2%2 


21° 


274.4 


531/32 


45%4 


4%2 


345/64 


3%4 


221/32 


2%6 


22° 


262.0 


6 1/4 


55/32 


4 V2 


32%2 


31%4 


251/64 


21%4 


23° 


250.8 


633/64 


513,^2 


4II/16 


4 1/16 


3 7/16 


25%4 


225/64 


24° 


240.5 


613/16 


5 % 


457/64 


4 1/4 


31%2 


3 1/^2 


2 1/2 


25° 


231.0 


7%4 


553/64 


53/32 


413/^2 


347/64 


3 5^2 


21%2 


26° 


222.3 


7 % 


6 5/64 


51%4 


437/64 


3 Vs 


3 %2 


245/64 


27° 


214.2 


7 % 


6 %2 


531/64 


4 % 


4:V64: 


313/32 


251/64 


28° 


206.7 


75%4 


635/64 


545/64 


415/16 


4.-^^/64. 


317,62 


22%2 


29° 


199.7 


813/64 


64%4 


557/64 


5%2 


4.^V64 


341/64 


3 


30° 


193.2 


81%2 


7 


6%2 


5 1/4 


431/64 


313/16 


3 7/64 



236 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

hoist for unloading and loading the rails and a hoist- 
ing engine between drums and cables for pulling them 
through the curver. 

Directions for use of the Vaughan rail bender. 
Seat the device squarely on top of the rail, over the 
splice, with the slots in the legs at center of splice. 
Insert the lifting bar in leg slots. Turn up screw 
until rail and splice are straight. 

For straightening bent splices not in track, bolt the 
splice to two ends, forming a complete joint, and pro- 
ceed as above. 

For use as an ordinary rail bender, lay the device 
on its side with the legs over and under the rail. In- 
sert bearing blocks, and turn up screw. 

A few drops of oil on the screw will very materially 
lessen the labor of operation. 

Printed information for foremen. On all curves it 
is good practice to have plainly printed signs showing 
the degree of the curve on one side and the proper ele- 
vation therefor on the other side. If for any reason 
it is not possible for the engineers to give center line 
stakes for relining curves and to set these markers giv- 
ing the exact location of point of curve and any change 
in its degree, the next best plan is to furnish the fore- 
man with a record of the curves on his section and the 
elevation for each. This may be in pamphlet form 
convenient to carry with him at all times, such as 
shown in Fig. 47, page 237. The column ''gage" 
should show the exact gage to maintain; that is, if 
there is any departure from the standard, on ac- 
count of widening for the curve. 



ELEVATION OF CUKVES 



237 






-3 ■^* 






£^4.^. 





NCAK; 


□ C&Ktl. 




6..C ^"„-:^ 


>..»„ 


DcG^ee 


£LE«r.=M 


<i-.ce 
































































■x 


















■^ 




































'. 


















Q 


















i 





































































































/^ffijpo i^£/);_ 



y^^/>Aoy£^t 



£l 



.£■ ) 



<r 77 ni. ^ ) 



Fig, 47. List of Curves on a Section. 



XVI 

LINING CURVES 



One method of lining. Select any part of a curve 
track which seems to be in the best line for a distance 
of at least 60 feet, but do not begin at the point ot a 
curve unless you know positively that the curve turns 
off from the straight track without leaving a swing m 

the line. o .i ±. i 

Set two stakes accurately in the center of the tracli, 
60 feet apart, and one in the center of the track at 
the middle of the 60 feet. These three POi^ts are 
shown in Fig. 48 by the letters A, B and C. Now 
stretch a cord tight from A to C, and measure from 
the center of the cord indicated by M to the center 
stake B The result should be your guide as a middle 
ordinate for the balance of the curve in either direc- 
tion from where you commence work. We wiU ap- 
pose this middle ordinate to be four inches. You 
next move the cord 30 feet ahead in the direction in 
which you wish to line, stopping at B with the end 
you had first at A, and holding the end of the cord 
which was at C in your hand until its center is directly 
opposite and distant just four inches from the track 
center, at C. You may then set track center D at the 
end of the cord which you hold m your hand, ihis 
process may be carried on until you have set track 
centers for the whole curve. , . .r, ,,,i,^ip 

After you have set the track centers for the whole 
curve, procure a gage which is square and true and 
mark on the gage, with some sharp instrument, the 

238 



LINING CURVES 



239 



correct center between track rails or middle of the 
gage. Place this gage on the track between the rails 
and over the track center where you wish to begin lin- 
ing the rails to place. Then have your men move the 
track with their lining bars until the center, as marked 
on the gage, comes directly over the track center 
point on the stakes. Move the track in this manner 




Fig. 48. The Letters A, B, C, to G are Track Centers of 
a Curve 30 Feet Apart; A C is a 60-Foot Line with which 
to Ascertain the Middle Ordinate; B M Shows Where 
the Measurements Should Be Taken to Find the Middle 
Ordinate. 

at every point where you have set a center stake, and 
then go back over it again, taking out any kinks or 
other defects left in the line, and you will have a 
splendid and a true curved line on your track. 

Care should be taken not to make any mistakes in 
measuring the middle ordinates, or in setting the track 
centers. It will pay to take your time and do the job 
well, because if properly done (like well surfaced 



240 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

track) it will need to be retouched only in spots after- 
wards. 

By commencing at a rail joint, this method of lining 
a curve may also be applied to the gage side of the 
rails, and any defects in the track line can be taken 
out by moving the rails to place as you go, but the 
work will not be as accurate nor as reliable as by the 
process first given. If the rails are 33' long, use a 66 
foot cord or string. 

Effect of locomotive and car wheels on curve track. 
Car wheels which are badly worn on the tread, or 
close to the flanges, or have the flanges worn sharp, 
are not safe when passing over switches if there is the 
slightest ''lip" on the rails. They are dangerous also 
on battered rails, or going around sharp curves, where 
they are likely to climb the rails and leave the track. 
Wheels of the kind mentioned have a tendency to hug 
the rail on their side of the track, and as a conse- 
quence make a considerable wear along the gage side 
of the head of the rail. They also wear spots along 
the top surface of the outer rail on curves, because, the 
circumference of the wheel being the same or worn 
smaller at the flange than at the outside, the wheel 
must slip by a certain amount in proportion to the 
degree of curvature, in order to travel as fast as the 
wheel on the inside rail. "When the driving wheels of 
an engine are allowed to run too long without being 
turned off, the groove worn in the tire often causes 
considerable damage to track before the cause is 
known. Badly worn driving wheels are likely to break 
the points and wing rails of frogs and cause excessive 
wear on the stock rails when passing over switches. 

Run off. If the curve in the track is a portion of 
the arc of a circle, it has the same radius right from 
the point of beginning on the tangent, and conse- 
quently should have full elevation at the point of 
curve as at any other part of it. To insure easy riding 



LINING CURVES 241 

the elevation must commence on the tangent and in- 
crease regularly until the curve is reached. It is good 
practice to run the elevation out fifty (50) feet on the 
tangent for each inch of elevation. Thus a curve re- 
quiring four inch elevation would have the four inches 
at the point of curve, running out to nothing at a 
point two hundred (200) feet back on the tangent. 

Easements. The practice of running the elevation 
out on the tangent as above mentioned is not all that 
may be desired but is the best that can be done when 
the curve is of the same degree throughout, or, in other 
words, is a circular curve. To insure easy riding, 
especially for fast trains, a '' spiral" or "easement 
curve" should be applied to join the tangent with the 
circular curve. There are several kinds of easements, 
the principle being that the curve will have a radius 
varying from infinity at the point of spiral down to the 
radius of the circular curve at the point where the 
main curve begins. This permits running the eleva- 
tion in the same proportion, the elevation increasing 
just as the degree of curve increases until full eleva- 
tion is attained where the main or circular curve is 
reached. The application of spirals or easements in 
relining curves which were staked out as arcs of circles 
in the first place is quite complicated and should not 
be undertaken by trackmen. If it be desired to put 
spirals on curves, the engineers will have to be called 
upon to do it, and a record can then be kept of just 
what change is made. 



XVII 

SPECIAL CONDITIONS ON MOUNTAIN ROADS 

Track work. The winter should find trackmen in 
the mountains well prepared for the most exacting 
part of the year's work. The ditches should be 
cleaned out and all loose rock should be barred down 
from overhanging walls ; otherwise, later, they may be 
dislodged by the expansive force of ice or by the weight 
of snow, and roll upon the track. If the cut ends ab- 
ruptly at a deep fill, the ditch should be extended away 
from the track along the side of the hill in order to 
prevent the water cutting unsightly holes in the grade 
at the end of the cut. At many places the cut is on 
one side only, the other side being a fill, and where 
the formation above the track is loose rock, gravel and 
dirt, this material is very apt to slide down when wet. 
In such cases the dirt must be cleared from the track 
and cast down the side of the fill. After a time this 
fill becomes so wide at this point that the material can 
no longer be cast over the bank, but must be carried 
part of the way. This is a very costly manner of 
doing the work, for it becomes necessary to use wheel- 
barrows or ditching machines and employ work serv- 
ice, so that the material can be loaded up and wasted 
on some narrow fill. When large rocks are to be 
barred out or rolled down, they may be made to roll 
across the track and down the fill on the other side 
by laying an inclined platform of ties over the ditch 
next to the hill. But if for any reason the success of 
this plan is doubtful or if the walls of the cut rise on 

242 



SPECIAL CONDITIONS ON MOUNTAIN ROADS 243 

both sides of the track, such large rocks should be 
blasted before being moved, so that the track may 
not be obstructed with rocks too large to handle. In 
all cases the rails below the rock should be pro- 
tected by ties; if the rock is to be rolled, the ties 
should be laid along each rail on the side next to the 
cut, but if blasting is to be done a row of ties should 
be laid along each side of each rail for forty or fifty 
feet near the point where the largest rocks are expected 
to fall; if sufficient ties are not at hand to do this a 
single row laid on top of the rails may do, but in this 
case there is no danger of a tie being displaced by one 
stone and leaving the rail exposed to damage by a 
heavier one coming after. If ties are not to be had, 
poles may be cut and substituted. All such rock work 
should of course be done under the protection of 



Cross drains should be cleared out, and if the lower 
ends empty on loose sand or soil they should be filled 
around with rock to prevent washing or undermining 
the drains. All loose, coarse rocks projecting above 
the ties in the track should be removed before winter 
sets in, otherwise they may become displaced and roll 
on the packed snow or ice between the rails and be 
caught by pilot, snow plow or flanger. 

Protection against snow. Every road crossing a 
mountain range maintains an expensive system of 
snow fences and snow sheds. At the higher altitudes, 
on account of the excessive amount of snowfall, fences 
are ineffective and sheds are built over cuts and other 
places where the snow is likely to cause trouble, while 
the fills are generally left exposed because the winds 
may be depended upon to keep them clear. Where the 
elevation is low great snow fences are in a measure 
depended upon to keep the snow from drifting upon 
the track. The point of elevation at which fences are 
no longer effective and sheds are necessary varies 



244 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

greatly in different parts of the country, and must be 
determined by experience in each particular case. 
Sheds and board fences are usually built by the car- 
penter forces, but trackmen are generally expected to 
look after them and do light repairs, remove grass and 
other combustible material from sheds, and see that 
water barrels are kept filled. Before winter sets in 
salt should be furnished and about two common water 
pailfuls of it should be put in each barrel, which 
amount is sufficient to prevent the water from freezing 
hard enough to injure the barrels. Before putting in 
fresh salt the barrel should be thoroughly cleaned out. 

Clear rails of ice. Particular attention should be 
given to keeping the rails in snow sheds and tunnels 
free from ice in winter. 

Making snow fences. (See also the chapter on 
Winter Work.) Sometimes trackmen are required to 
make snow fences out of poles where timber is con- 
venient. If the ground is not rocky a good fence may 
be made by beginning at one end and setting an up- 
right forked post; then lay one end of a pole on the 
ground the other projecting through the fork of the 
post. The poles should be about twenty feet long, and 
the upper end should be about eight feet above the 
ground. After setting the first pole in position, drive 
cross stakes about four feet from the upright post so 
that they will lap over the inclined pole ; then lay an- 
other pole in the crotch thus formed by the stakes 
and repeat the process until the fence is finished. The 
cross stakes may be made from the tops of the branches 
of the poles cut. This makes a good snow fence, but 
requires a good deal of work. 

The portable snow fence similar to that shown in 
Fig. 49 is about the best form of snow fence in use 
today where the snow conditions are not too severe. 

The rotary plow and Sanger. The modern rotary 
snow plow and flanger have made obsolete the old 



SPECIAL CONDITIONS ON MOUNTAIN ROADS 245 



snow plow and ''snow bucking" outfit, which were al- 
ways costly and hardly ever effective in keeping the 
mountain passes open for anything like regular serv- 



r'x6'!xl6-o" 



ix5"Bolt 




o 



^Diagonal 
<6"xa'o" 
(2 per Sect) 



I x6"x 16' 



i6fT Sections 

Fig. 49. Portable Snow Fence 

ice. If the rotary plow and Sanger are kept moving 
over the line during a storm the section men will have 
little snow shoveling to do except at switches, station 



246 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

platforms and snow slides. Turntables on the passes 
are usually housed in and require no attention. 

Water supply. There is sometimes trouble about 
keeping up the flow of water to the tanks. Those lo- 
cated in the mountains are generally supplied by 
gravity ; that is, there is an underground pipe line up 
some stream to a point where the intake or upper end 
of the pipe is higher than the tank. The line is 
usually laid so deep that there is little danger of freez- 
ing, but as an additional precaution the lower end is 
provided with a waste pipe arranged so that when the 
tank is full a valve in the lower end of the pipe line is 
opened and the water flows out through a waste pipe 
until the water in the tank is lowered by engines to a 
certain point, when the valve is again closed. By this 
arrangement water is always flowing through the pipe 
line, and the likelihood of its freezing up reduced ; but 
the box or housing at the upper end is often broken or 
filled with sand during a freshet and should be 
promptly dug out and repaired. It is a very diffi- 
cult matter to so protect the upper end of the pipe 
as to admit water freely and still keep out sand and 
silt. 

Expansion. The contraction of rails on mountain 
roads in the winter does not seem to be greater than 
on other lines. This is probably accounted for by the 
fact that while the temperature falls very low in the 
winter it does not rise high in the summer, so that the 
range is not excessive. This fact should not be lost 
sight of in track laying, or relaying steel. The 
greater the altitude the less expansion needed if the 
rails are laid in the summer. The rails do not absorb 
the heat of the sun and become so much hotter than 
the temperature of the air as they do at lower alti- 
tudes. At some passes the thermometer never rises 
above 80 degrees, and in such places steel laid when 
the temperature reaches this point would need no al- 



SPECIAL CONDITIONS ON MOUNTAIN ROADS 247 

lowance for expansion, because whatever movement 
takes place must be in the way of contraction. Yet 
steel is sometimes laid in the mountains with the same 
allowance for expansion required by rules intended 
and accepted as correct for use in other climates. 
Where this is done the contraction during the nights, 
which are always cold in the mountains, and in winter, 
is so great that the joints are pounded down and rail 
ends battered by the wheels, and frequently the bolts 
are broken and the rails pulled apart. 

When curves are numerous the '^butting back" 
process should begin at the short rails, if any, at each 
end of the curve on the inner line of rails, and the 
closing up process should be done with a view to taking 
out these rails and using longer ones. When reverse 
curves are close together, by changing rails on the in- 
side of one curve the expansion may sometimes be 
adjusted on the outer rail of the next curve. 

Washouts. In the spring mountain roads are sub- 
ject to considerable damage from washouts. These 
occur not only along water courses, but also in the 
valleys where the ground is comparatively level and 
where the track may be at some distance from the 
stream. A peculiarity of mountain streams is that 
they rarely cover any considerable territory. There 
are points where clouds seem to gather or form, and 
sometimes the fall of water at these places may amount 
to two or three inches in a few minutes. The down- 
pour of these so-called "cloudbursts" is something 
tremendous, and of course in such a case the nearest 
stream is changed in a short time into a torrent, along 
whose bed are rolled enormous boulders, which strike 
and break off bridge piles as if they were pipe stems. 
At other times a cloud may leave some peak or range 
and, swelling up big and black, move out over a valley 
and suddenly dump almost its entire contents in a 
forty-acre field. If there happens to be a railroad 



2:48 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

track whose grade is not much above the surface of 
the ground at this place, it will be flooded or the bal- 
last washed out. Foremen in the valleys soon learn to 
watch certain points in the mountains for storms that 
may cause damage to the track, and when it is evident 
that a serious storm is in progress at such a place flag- 
men should be sent out to watch the effect on the track 
and bridges spanning the streams involved. These 
watchmen should not be withdrawn until all danger is 
known to be past. 

Land slides. The melting snow in the spring at 
high altitudes softens the ground to such a depth that 
sandy cuts are always caving in, or loose rocks rolling 
down. Most of the cuts have one high wall next to the 
hill and little or no cutting on the lower slope. If the 
slide cannot be removed by the section gang without 
delaying trains the division headquarters should be 
notified, stating the number of feet of track covered, 
how deep, and whether with gravel, clay or rock. This 
information should be sent by telegraph or telephone 
and should always state what forces of men are avail- 
able nearby or are working on the removal of the ob- 
struction, and the length of time necessary for such a 
force to clear the track and repair it. Information 
should be sent in as accurately as possible so that the 
division officers can estimate what extra help must be 
provided. 

Blasting rocks. At points where large rocks are 
likely to roll upon the track, a supply of drills, dyna- 
mite, and fuse and caps should be kept. If a rock too 
large to be rolled is found on the track it may be 
broken by fastening two sticks of dynamite together, 
attaching the cap and fuse, and laying the charge on 
top of the rock on a flat surface, if possible. Then, if 
a smaller rock is laid on top of the giant powder, much 
additional force of the explosion will be exerted down- 
ward. Sticks of dynamite should not be hung over the 



SPECIAL CONDITIONS ON MOUNTAIN ROADS 249 

side or laid beneath a rock lying on the track, as the 
explosion is certain to injure the ties or rails. If the 
rock is too large to be broken as above it must be 
drilled. A hole equal in depth to one-fourth the thick- 
ness of the rock will be sufficient and half a stick of 
dynamite, properly tamped, will rend a rock weighing 
several tons. It is best to use a liberal quantity of 
powder, so that the pieces may be small enough to be 
handled readily. If the shot misses — that is, if the 
fuse fails to carry the fire to the cap or the cap does 
not explode — the hole should not be picked out, as the 
drill is likely to strike fire and ignite the fuse, or it 
may hit the cap and cause it to explode. Only expe- 
rienced men should be allowed to handle dynamite, 
and it should never be carried in the well or bed of a 
hand car, as a collision may take place or something 
be dropped on it and cause an explosion. If it is 
necessary to carry a few sticks along on a car they 
should be taken in the pocket or hand of some one who 
will take care of them. Frozen dynamite will not al- 
ways explode, and must be thawed out in manure or 
warm water, not too hot, and never while vessel is in 
contact with the fire. 

Protecting embankments. Much trouble is often 
experienced in protecting railroad embankments from 
being cut away by the currents of mountain streams. 
If the track is in a narrow canyon where the water runs 
swiftly and deep, solid masonry walls afford the most 
reliable protection ; but if the width of the stream will 
permit, a good wall having a slope of ''one to one" 
may be made of uncut sandstone by using selected 
stones from two to three feet square and from six to 
twelve inches thick. The foundation should, if pos- 
sible, be laid on bedrock, but in the absence of this 
the foundation may be of loose rock, laid in a trench 
about six feet wide and at least three feet below the 
line of scour in the bed of the stream. Much depends 



250 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

on getting down below the line of shifting sands during 
high water, and allowance must be made for the in- 
creased depth of scour that may be caused by the 
water being deflected or confined by the wall. After 
the loose rock is put in place and interstices filled with 
sand a line of the large square stones may be laid on 
top with the face in the center of the foundation and 
backed by loose rock carefully packed and to a height 
equal to the top of the first line of stones. Then an- 
other layer of stones may be laid on the first, but at a 
distance back of the first line equal to the average 
thickness of the stones, when the backing may be again 
brought up to the level of the stones, and so on, mak- 
ing a wall somewhat like a stairway the height and 
width of the steps being equal. This makes a good, 
strong wall at a cost less than solid masonry, but, like 
the masonry, its life depends largely on the security 
of the foundation. When sandstone is not to be had, 
such walls are often built, but without the steps, of 
smelter slag. This is melted rock, and is heavier than 
sandstone, and when well laid with the smooth side out 
presents a nice appearance; but it is impossible to 
make the pieces fit closely, and, being small, they are 
easily knocked out of place by floating driftwood, 
logs, etc., and if the current is swift, in a few years 
the carefully laid wall looks like common loose rip- 
rap. Where the width of the stream is ample, or 
where there is no reason for building masonry or 
other walls, ordinary riprap may be employed to pro- 
tect the embankments. This is made by dumping 
stones, slag or like material over the bank of the river 
until it is entirely coated from top to bottom to a depth 
of from perhaps two feet at the top to ten feet or 
more at the bottom, depending on the shape of the 
bank and on the slope given to the riprap. No 
foundation need be provided, as the loose rock will roll 



SPECIAL CONDITIONG ON MOUNTAIN ROADS 251 

down and fill up any holes scoured out by the water. 
The amount of rock on the side of the bank should be 
in proportion to the depth and volume of water that 
may pass this point when the river is full. If the 
course of the stream lies parallel with the track the 
slope of the riprap may be about one and one-half to 
one ; but if the water strikes the bank at an angle the 
lower half of the slope should be at least two to one. 
It may frequently be noticed that a bar of loose 
boulders a few feet high and sloping into the water at a 
slight incline will hold its place and turn the course 
of the stream while if a wall of these same loose 
boulders were run out into the stream it would be 
swept away by the first flood. This shows that the cur- 
rent of a stream cannot be turned by loose rock unless 
it is laid with a long slope or incline, and the longer 
the incline, especially of the lower portion, the greater 
will be its power of resistance. 

Stone cribs laid parallel to the track or projecting 
down and outward into the stream are used in many 
places to prevent the water from cutting away the 
bank. They are simple in construction, being long 
boxes made of logs properly notched at the ends, laid 
somewhat like the walls of a log cabin, or they may be 
made of timbers. In either case they are drift-bolted 
at the corners and through the cross stays, which may 
be placed in rows about ten feet apart, and then the 
whole is filled with loose rock or slag. When laid on 
a good foundation they answer the purpose for which 
they were built very well, but the cost of material 
and labor required in building the crib is consider- 
able. 

Work in tunnels. Repairing track in long, dark 
tunnels presents problems to the section foreman not 
often encountered elsewhere. They are cut through 
formations ranging from loose sand or clay to solid 



252 THE TRACKMANS HELPER 

granite ; they may be straight or curved, level, or with 
a grade uniform from one end to the other, or from 
the center each way. 

If lined with brick or stone they are usually dry; 
if wood is used there may be wet spots in the tunnel 
where the water leaks through. If the tunnel is 
through rock, seams or cracks are often met, through 
which water pours the year around. In the winter 
it requires considerable labor in such a tunnel to keep 
the rails free from ice and attend to the heaved places 
in the track. In all wet tunnels the ballast should be 
broken stone, and ample provision made for drainage. 
If a rock tunnel has but few seams, the water may be 
kept out by filling them with good cement, but if the 
rock is badly cracked this cannot be done without con- 
siderable expense, although it will probably pay in the 
end. Open ditches are in most cases relied on to carry 
off the water, and as they do not fill up except with 
ice in the winter they are about as good as any system 
of pipes or tiling. In dry tunnels gravel or cinders, 
or in fact any material, makes good ballast, because it 
is not affected by wet weather. Track in tunnels can- 
not be raised without diminishing the clearance over- 
head. This clearance is a matter of record and is the 
basis of information as to what sizes of cars, etc., may 
be safely sent over the line. Therefore, foremen should 
not raise track in tunnels without permission from 
their superiors. The width of tunnels for standard 
gage track is never less than thirteen feet, and when 
putting in ties in rock tunnels, it is cheapest to take 
out two adjoining ones at the same time, even if one is 
sound and must be put back when the new tie is put 
in. Fig. 50 will show how ties may be taken out or 
put in where the width of the tunnel is thirteen feet 
or more and the ties do not exceed eighteen to the rail. 

One tie (a) is taken out on one side and slewed in one 
direction, and the other (b) on the opposite side and 



SPECIAL CONDITIONS ON MOUNTAIN ROADS 253 



slewed the other way. Where rock does not interfere 
ties may be taken out by digging a trench (c), sloping 
from the rail down and outward to the wall of the 
tunnel, then pull the tie to that side until the other 
end can be raised over the other rail and the tie pulled 
out. As the back end of the trench need be only about 



///fftf/f(fffff 



Line of Tunnel 



/f/////////////ff /s 




'TTmTTTmm 



T7777777? 



Line of Tunnel 

Replacing Ties in Tunnel 



Fig. 50. 



a foot deep, less ballast is handled than in the first 
method, which should be employed only where a trench 
cannot be dug. To line track in a long tunnel, get a 
pole long enough to reach from wall to wall at a point 
level with the top of the rail, then find and mark the 
exact center. Next make a mark at the center of the 



254 THE TEACKMAN'S HELPER 

rail gage, lay the gage and the pole across the track 
side by side and throw the track until the mark on the 
gage comes even with the mark on the pole. This may 
be done to get centers at points fifty feet apart, and 
then the track can be lined according to those points. 
If the tunnel is dark a torch or lantern may be held 
over the rail to give light. The foregoing in regard to 
tunnels will apply also to track repairs in snow sheds. 



XVIII 

FROGS AND SWITCHES 

Turnouts. A turnout is a curved track by which a 
car may pass from one track to another, the principal 
parts of which are a frog and a switch with a con- 
necting- piece of track called the ''lead." The frog is 
a device whereby two rails may cross each other in 
such a manner that a wheel rolling: along either rail 
will have an unobstructed flangeway while crossing 
the other. A switch consists of two rails, each of 
which has one end free to move, so connected by cross 
rods that they move parallel with each other, whereby 
a car may be switched or shunted from the main track 
on to the turnout track. Originally switches were 
generally of the ' ' stub ' ' variety but of late years these 
have become obsolete and we have now practically only 
''split" switches or "point" switches, the simplest 
form of w'hich is shown in Fig. 51. 

The upper illustration. Fig. 51, shows the switch set 
for side track while the lower figure shows it set for 
the main track. The rails A B & G D are called 
"stock" rails, are continuous and spiked their full 
length. E and F are called the "point" rails and are 
usually fastened at their heels, HH, by angle bars to 
the lead rails. The point rails are as a rule straight 
and are planed in such a manner that they bear against 
the solid rail for a length of 6 or 7 ft. or more. The 
"throw" of the point, which means the lateral dis- 
tance that the two switch rail points move at right 
angles with the main track, in order to change the 

255 



256 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



route of traffic from one track to another, is about 4l^ 
or 5 in., and the clear space at the heel between gage 
lines is usually 6 in. or at least 5 in. In order to de- 
termine whether a point is a left or right hand one, 





Fig. 51 

stand at the point of the switch and face the heel or at 
the switch and face the frog. The point at your 
right hand is the right hand switch point and the 
other one is the left. 

Temporary turnouts without frogs and switches. 
Mr. Andrew Palm, Roadmaster for the C. 'C. T. Co., 
was once required to spur out one car, using the ordi- 
nary method of stripping out and lining over the 
track. Upon investigation the ties in the main track 
were found to be so decayed that they would not sur- 
vive the operations of digging out, lining over and 
lining back again. Naturally it was not desirable to 
renew ties for 60 ft. or more of track in order to spur 
out one car, and if left undisturbed it was estimated 
that the old ties had a year or more of life still left 
in them. Therefore, Mr. Palm used the very in- 
genious plan which is described below. The spikes 
were drawn and the main track rails lined over and 



FROGS AND SWITCHES 257 

connected to the temporary track with angle bars, and 
spiked to gage, enough short ties being laced in to 
hold the track meanwhile. The quotations are from 
Mr. Palm's article in Ry. Eng. & M. of W. 

''This is nothing more than the old stub switch 
method with the frog and guard rails omitted. 

"We all know that it is undesirable to place in 
main lines any switches that are not absolutely neces- 
sary, so quite frequently I lay one of these temporary 
turnouts in preference to the standard switch and frog 
turnouts. From a safety standpoint, they are ideal, 
and can be constructed for less than half the cost of 
the standard point switch. 

"Our main lines are laid 'broken joints' and when 
we decide to lay a track of this character we take two 
half rails, using one to even the joints at the point 
where we wish to begin our turnout and the other 
where the frog would be placed in a standard lead; 
this half rail is used in place of the frog when we de- 
sire to place on or take cars from the temporary siding, 
by simply releasing the half rail from the main line 
and laying it in the open space in the turnout, and 
when the cars have been taken out or placed in, the 
rail is taken up and relaid in the main line at the be- 
ginning of the turnout; all that is necessary is to 
remove the angle bars from the main line and a few 
spikes from the inside of one rail, and the same amount 
of spikes from the outside of the rail opposite back of 
the joints where this connection is to be made with 
the turnout; by using the angle bars to make this 
connection there is no likelihood of a derailment, while 
there would be if the joints were left open as 
they were in the days when stub-switches were in 
vogue. 

"I prefer this method for * spurring out' extra gang 
outfits to the old way ; digging out between the ties for 
three rail lengths, then opening the main line and 



258 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

lining the main track out to connect with the tempo- 
rary spur. This I consider bad practice, as the road- 
bed is badly disturbed, ties are skewed, which renders 
it necessary to re-space the ties and to correct the 
gage of the main line rails after each time the track 
has been ' cut. ' 

''By the method which I am submitting, the road- 
bed is disturbed but very little, the ties not at all, 
for cross-ties are inserted between those in the main 
line to support the lead rails. 

' ' I also prefer using this ' layout ' instead of tracks 
with standard turnouts for temporary use by extra 
gang outfit cars, for we then have the cars isolated, 
and switchmen and trainmen cannot use the track for 
storing or setting out commercial cars. 

"We continually have complaints from extra gang 
foremen as to the rough usage their outfits are receiv- 
ing at night by cars being 'kicked in' against them. 

"In the construction of new railroads we find this 
' layout ' very useful ; often we have to construct sidings 
for track-laying and surfacing gangs, and more often 
than otherwise we are short of frogs and switches ; we 
lay these sidings at points where permanent sidings 
are to be located, and later, upon the arrival of the 
frogs and switches, the standard turnouts are installed. 

"Our switch leads are for a No. 10 frog, whose 
length is I6I/2 feet, or half the length of a 33-foot rail, 
so when we * square' the joints for the temporary 
turnouts we have done that much toward the installa- 
tion of the permanent switches. 

"Unless we used this temporary lead, we would 
often be compelled to have our material trains go 
fifteen to twenty miles to pass each other ; we can pass 
the trains by switching the empty train onto one of 
these sidings and thereby allow the loaded train to 
proceed to the front, resulting in the saving of many 
hours of valuable time. "We have passed these trains 



FROGS AND SWITCHES 



259 



with only two trackmen, an assistant foreman and one 
laborer making the necessary changes. 

' ' In any case where the lined over track is left at a 
pretty sharp curve, the locomotive should not be 
pushed in on the curve. The best arrangement is to 
have a number of empty flats between the car or cars 
to be spurred out and the locomotive. In this way the 



/^ain Line 





Lined for 



Fig. 52. Turnout Without Frog or Points 



light empty flat cars will pass over the track without 
spreading it or getting ofi: the track as a locomotive is 
apt to. 

"With a well trained and organized gang three or 
four cars may be spurred out in this way and the track 
closed in ten minutes, after thorough preliminary 
preparations have been made/' 



260 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



Laying switches. Locate the frog with a view to 
cutting the least possible number of rails. After you 
have determined where the frog point will come, mark 
the place on the track rail, take from the turnout table 
the distance from the switch point to point of frog 
corresponding to the number of the frog which is 
used. The head block can now be located by meas- 
uring the total distance obtained from the frog point. 

Make marks with chalk along the flanges of the rail 
between the head block and frog, so that the switch 
ties can all be placed the proper distances apart from 
center to center. After the switch ties have all been 
arranged according to their proper lengths, lay them 




Fig. 53. Method of Spurring Out Cars 



out alongside the track, and see that each tie is num- 
bered, and in its proper place as it will lie in the track. 
Then take out the old ties and pull in each new tie 
in regular order. 

When pulling the ends of the ties to line, time can 
be saved by using a gauge, made by nailing a cleat 
across a piece of board, allowing eighteen or twenty 
inches to project beyond the cleat. Have this gage 
square at each end, lay it with the cleat against the 
end of each tie and draw a chalk line across the tie 
at the end of the board, marking all the ties the same 
length from the end. This chalk line should be placed 
so as to mark the position of the outside flange of the 
rail or where the spikes are to be driven on the line 



FROGS AND SWITCHES 261 

side. When the ties are all in place under the track, 
the ends of all the ties will line uniformly on the line 
side but how closely they will line up on the turnout 
side depends on how nearly to length the switch ties 
have been cut or selected to suit the turnout curve. 
This is a much better way than measuring the end of 
each tie with a stick or the maul handle. The switch 
ties should be put in from either end, just as you have 
the time to spare between trains. If trains are run- 
ning close together begiji at head blocks and select the 
time longest between trains to put in frog and lead. 
At least two long switch ties should be put in behind 
the frog to avoid adzing and crowding short ties past 
each other where the two tracks separate. 

No frog should be put in until the main track guard 
rail is first secure in its proper place; otherwise the 
first train that comes along facing the frog may be 
derailed. 

To put in a turn-out proceed as follows : 

1. Locate the frog and switch point and put in the 
turn-out ties, as described in the preceding paragraph. 

2. Put slide plates and braces under the unbroken 
side of main track, placing shims of the proper thick- 
ness on the ties at the opposite rail where plates are to 
be used. 

3. Line and full spike the unbroken side on new ties 
and spike the guard rail to proper position. 

4. Couple up frog and main track lead rail and main 
track switch point on the new ties on the turn-out side, 
doing such cutting and drilling as may be required 
to complete the main track lead to the proper length 
from the point of the switch to the heel of the frog. 

5. Break the main track at the position of the heel 
of the frog and throw the main track rail for the 
siding, bending the stock rail at the same time. This 
can be done without taking the stock rail out of the 
track. Throw in the main track lead, which has al- 



262 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

ready been coupled, bolt the main track end of the 
frog, and then spike the new section to the proper 
gage from the frog to switch, putting on the proper 
slides and braces. 

6. Couple up the switch point for the siding by 
means of the proper rods, making such adjustments 
in the rods as are necessary. Cut the rails to com- 
plete the siding turn-out from the heel of the switch 
to the point of the frog, and spike the siding lead to 
the proper line for the turn-out curve. 

7. Complete the work of laying the turn-out by the 
necessary spiking, gaging and adjustment of switch 
stand. 

Table of switch leads. A great many tables of leads 
have been published of which, except where one has 
been copied from another, practically no two are ex- 
actly alike. The reason for this is because the lead 
depends upon a considerable number of factors which 
vary among the different railroads and with the 
different lengths of switches and frogs. A large rail- 
road system with modern standards for frogs and 
switches will nevertheless have a quantity of perfectly 
serviceable material that is not exactly in accord with 
the standard drawings and yet which must be utilized 
in the track. Consequently any one table of leads 
will not be theoretically correct for all the material on 
hand. 

An elaborate set of tables for a great many different 
conditions of frog and switch length, etc., is published 
in the new edition of Practical Switch Work, issued 
by the publishers of this book. 

If a frog is set within a few inches of its theoretical 
position, provided that the turnout rail be accurately 
lined, the lead will work properly and no one will 
notice its lack of theoretical correctness in riding over 
it, except at very high speed. Therefore it is pos- 
sible to design a table for average conditions, being 



FROGS AND SWITCHES 263 

absolutely accurate for those average conditions, and 
sufficiently near the standards likely to be adopted 
to work well in practice. Such a table, which was 
designed to meet just such average conditions, and 
which has been used in practice for a number of years 
with entire satisfaction, is given herewith. 

With the diagram illustrating the table are given 
for the use of engineers the formulas by which the 
table has been calculated. 

Arrangement of tables. The table runs from frog 
numbers 4 to 20 inclusive, with three intermediate frog 
numbers, 43/4, 5I/2 and 6I/2. There are other half 
numbers of course, but they are so little used that it 
has not been thought worth while to put them in this 
table. 

The first column of the table gives the frog num- 
ber, the second the frog angle, and the third gives the 
distance in feet from the theoretical point of frog to 
the toe of frog. It is here assumed that this distance 
is in even feet, whereas it frequently happens that it 
may be 6 ft. 9 in., or 6 ft. 3 in., or 7 ft. 10 in., etc., 
as the ease may be. This, however, will have a very 
small effect upon the actual length of lead and the 
distances given in the table are near enough to those 
actually used in practice for all practical purposes. 
The fourth column gives the spread of the frog at 
the toe, based upon the number of the frog and the 
assumed distance in column 3. It is given in hun- 
dredths of a foot, and is the same as that given in 
the third column, divided by the frog number. The 
fifth column headed ''Planing of Switch Rail," gives 
the assumed distance from the point of the switch to 
the point at which the switch rail commences to curve 
toward the frog, usually where the planing runs out 
on the head of the switch rail. Thjs also varies a 
good deal in practice, and theoretically would intro- 
duce more variation in the correct theoretical length 



Table for point leads. 




JL = s/njA. C = a ^ . fi- C _ ^ 

Fig. 54. Switch and Frog Theoretical Layout 






(JTIO U.ITlJj JO 



J 03rHOiC-*MOMTll050i«0r-l0ir-Ji-JC0 05t-i--Jt-. 



Oc>00l^<»"^^iCi 



•8Ajno !jno 



ujnj, JO stiip^-a 



CO C-J W (M W iH 



rH rH W C^ N CO CO 



rfJU.l^ ^ Jj -f (^ "^ Ui UU C— ''Ti " — ' "-J c;ip I — 1 (.1J L— v*t ^^ ^>t u'f 1-- ^ ^'■t 

(JUIOtJ SUIU13|<J ^ ^' t^ c^ ^' _^* -n" t^ OO' ^^" CO (N <X> lO r4 !>' CO 00 T-H lO rH O 

inOJI pj^OIIO 0i(>4C^iC0C0C0C0C0'*^OOZ>Q0t»0i01i-lr-l(M'>i 



(J + *)— 9§i30 'i 



JO 8[§UY 



SmuBU JO pna 
JO I'aaii !^B iiB-jj 
qo^iAig JO p-BOJcig 

JO SUIUBIJ 



COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO'^CO^ 



80J,^B 

pBajdg Soj^ 



Soj^ JO 

80 J, 0!J !»UI0 J 



e,_i lO ?:^ o CO I> |^J 



OJCC>C(Oco-*0(Ni?JO(?«-*CO<©"*«005iC(MrHiHC^ 
Oi'*ClWCOiOT-(rM!-llN'*'-l'*C>iO-*CO(Mi-IOiS> 

aiSuy SOJ^J '^^wr-ioa>oooooo8><cioio^'*-*eoeocoeoeoM 
^ ::?^ ^ 

r^ 7^ r/^ rti e^ — ^ o,> Pf^ -^ i-r. ,^ ^ - ^ w- — - 

r-t rH i-i i-l Csi 

264 



FROGS AND SWITCHES 



265 



of lead and variations in the distance from point of 
frog to the toe of frog, but as we have said above, 
it is sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes of 
this table. The next column, headed with a small 
'H," '' Spread of Switch Rail at Heel or End of Plan- 
ing," gives the distance separating the switch rail 




Fig. 55. Typical Guard Rail 



from the main rail at the point where the switch rail 
starts to curve toward the frog, and where this is at 
the end of planing it will be equal to the width of a 
rail head, or about 0.22 of a ft. The column headed 
^^G" is the gage of the track minus the spread of toe 
of the frog and the spread of the switch rail at heel 
or end of planing. The other columns are explained 
by their captions in the table. 

fTrue Point 
Blunt Point 




Standard Frog 



Frogs. Fig. 56 is an outline diagram of a frog. 
The triangle C A E is the tongue. C E is the heel of 
the tongue. The channel at K is the mouth. Its nar- 
row part, P H, is the throat. The wings, F G, and 
H I, support the treads of the wheels from the point 
B, to the throat. L M is the heel of the frog. The 



266 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



angle is the divergence of the lines, A C and A E. 
The intersection of the lines at A is the true "the- 
oretical ' ' point of the frog. As this point is too weak 
for service, it is rounded off where the tongue is about 
one-half inch wide. The frog number is the ratio of 
the perpendicular, A D, the length of the point to the 
base, C E. Thus, if the length, A D, be 7, 9 or 10 
times C E, the frog is called a No. 7, 9 or 10 frog. 
The angle of the frog is determined approximately by 
dividing 57%o degrees by the number of the frog. 
To get the number of a frog one of the following ways 
may be used : 

1. Take a short stick say six inches long, lay this on 




Fig. 57. Conley All Rail Frog 



the heel of the frog where the spread of the frog 
equals the length of the stick; then from this point 
measure with the stick to the theoretical point of the 
frog; if it is seven times the length of the stick it will 
be a number seven ; if eight times, a number eight, etc. 

2. Measure with a rule and find where the spread 
is four inches; mark this point; then get where it is 
five inches ; also mark this ; then the length in inches 
from where it is four to five inches measured along 
the rail will be the number of the frog. 

3. Add the spread between the gage lines at the 
heel to the spread at toe in inches and divide this into 
total length of frog in inches; the result will be the 
number. 



FEOGS AND SWITCHES 267 

4. Divide the spread between gage lines at the heel 
of frog in inches into length along the rail from heel 
to theoretical point in inches ; result will be the num- 
ber. 

5. Divide the spread between gage lines at toe in 
inches into length along rail from toe to theoretical 
point in inches; the result will be the number. 

In order to make the main line rail as continuous as 
possible, spring frogs are introduced. These are right 
and left handed. To determine whether right or left, 
stand at the toe and face the heel; if the spring rail 
is at the left it is left-handed; if at the right, it is 
right-handed. 

Laying frogs in track. When putting frogs into a 
track care should be taken to have them in a true line 
and level with the track rails which are connected to 
them. The gage rail, opposite the frog, should be put 
to a perfect gage for the full length of the frog. Fore- 
men should see that frogs are not allowed to fill up 
with ice or snow in the winter season, and when foot 
guards for the protection of trainmen are provided, 
it should be seen to that they are always kept properly 
in place to prevent any liability of accident. 

Length of frogs. Long frogs and long switch leads 
are best where it is practicable to use them; the rails 
in short switch leads soon wear out. If the switch 
lead is long, the saving effected in the wear of the rails 
and rolling stock is considerable. A valuable feature 
in a frog is to have it of such a length that Yery little 
cutting of rails is necessary when putting in a new 
switch. When full length rails can be used in a 
switch it saves time, labor and material. For this 
purpose a foot or two is often added to the lead. 

Crossing frogs are used where one track crosses 
another. They are generally supported by long ties 
or switch timber. Where one road is double-tracked, 
the frogs are difficult to keep in line, owing to the 



268 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

tracks of the double line often creeping in opposite 
directions. 

Guard rails. The guard rail at frogs is used to pre- 
vent the car and locomotive wheels from crossing the 
point of the frog on the wrong side when trains are 
passing over it. The length and shape of a guard rail 
adopted as the standard should be used with all frogs 
in service on the same road. Guard rails should be 
preferably ten feet in length or over ; fifteen feet and 
fifteen and a half feet are ordinary lengths; for the 
higher numbered frogs longer ones are used. Enough 
of the middle of the guard rail should be spiked down 
parallel with the track rail, opposite the point of the 
frog, to secure ample protection. The guard rail may 
be secured by spiking it to the ties and by clamps, or 
by passing a bolt through the guard rail and track rail 
at each side of that part which is parallel with the 
track rail, leaving between the two rails a wheel chan- 
nel. This makes it unnecessary to use braces except 
as additional precaution. Fillers or separators may 
be used on the bolts between the webs of the guard 
and track rails, to regulate the width of the wheel 
channel, which should never be more than two inches 
on a standard gage track. Also clamps may be used ; 
these are of great advantage, especially when a guard 
rail fills with snow. 

The extreme ends of the guard rail should be spiked 
to the ties at a distance of four inches from the track 
rail. This will give the wheels an easy and gradual 
approach to the narrower space where the rails are 
parallel. Guard rails should not be sprung to place 
with the track spikes but should be bent to the proper 
shape before being laid. 

When guard rails are made in the company's shops 
their ends should be heated and hammered down or 
cut on a bevel of 45° to form a gradual approach or 



FEOGS AND SWITCHES 269 

slanting surface from the base of the rail, where it 
rests on the ties, to the top. This may prevent brake 
beams, chains, or snow plows, etc., from catching on 
the end of the guard rail and tearing it out of place. 
It is well to take the same precaution with the ends 
of guard rails that cross bridges or go around curves 
inside the rails on main track. See Fig. 55. 

Guard rails are necessary on a railroad, and if the 
track foreman has to provide them when he puts in a 
new switch the piece of rail which is cut from a full 
length rail to let in the frog will often serve for a 
guard rail ; when long enough it should always be used 
instead of cutting another good rail. The width of 
wheel fiangeway between the guard rail and track rail 
should be from 1%'^ to 1%"? and no more, if the wheel 
flange way through the frog is 1%" and the track is to 
gage. 

A frequent error in practice is to place the guard 
rail so that its center will come even with the point 
of the frog. The effect of this is to jerk trailing 
wheels against the end of the frog wing rail, and if 
the gage of track happens to be wide the frog bolts 
will be broken. Even if the track is in proper gage 
the end of the guard rail projecting beyond the end 
of the wing of the frog will throw worn flanged wheels 
(because of their greater lateral play) against the frog 
wing, thus subjecting an already weak flange to the 
danger of being broken, whereas if the projecting 
guard rail did not alter the course of the wheel it 
would enter the frog without a shock. The province 
of a guard rail is to guide the facing wheel flange 
safely past the point of the frog, and where the wheel 
has passed this point, be it but one inch, it has no fur- 
ther use for a guard rail. Therefore about two-thirds 
of the guard rail should be ahead of the point of frog 
to get the greatest amount of protection with the ma- 



270 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

terial used. The ends of guard rails should not be 
curved to a short radius, but on as easy a curve as 
practicable so that the wheels will be deflected gradu- 
ally to clear the frog point. Sometimes a short curve 
is put in the end of guard rails, but this causes bad 
riding qualities. 

Switch timbers. As there is considerable difference 
in the standards for bills of material for switch tim- 
bers on the different railroads, the following rules, 
will be useful to track foremen: 

Rule — To ascertain the number of pieces needed for 
any switch lead, find the distance from the head block 
to the point where the last long tie will be used behind 
the frog. Reduce this distance to inches, and divide it 
by the number of inches from the center of each tie to 
that of the next one. This will give the number of 
ties wanted. 

Example — Distance from the head block to the last 
long tie behind the frog, 55 feet ; reduce to inches, 660 
inches; distance from center to center of ties, 20 
inches; number of ties required, 33. 

The first three of these ties next the head block 
may be common long oak cross ties, and if 9 feet is 
the shortest piece sawed square for a switch tie, and 
14 feet the longest for a single throw switch, the other 
30 pieces may be divided up, when ordering the dif- 
ferent lumber lengths, as follows : 

5 pieces, 9 feet long; 5 pieces, 12 feet long. 

5 pieces, 10 feet long; 5 pieces, 13 feet long. 

5 pieces, 11 feet long; 5 pieces, 14 feet long. 

When odd lumber lengths of switch timbers are 
not furnished, then order double the quantity, 10, 12 
and 14 foot pieces. In large yards where there is 
very heavy traffic, switch timbers should not be laid 
more than 8 or 9 inches apart from the face of one 
timber to the face of the next one. 



FROGS AND SWITCHES 



271 



Bills of material of switch ties for various turn- 
outs and crossovers. 



Switch TIes 


FOR No. 6 


Switch Ties 


FOR No. 7 




Turnout 






Turnout 


No. 


Size 


Length 


No. 


Size 


Length 


2 pc. 


7" X 9" 


Head blocks 


2 


pc. 


7" X 9" 


Head blocks 


6 " 


(( 


9'— 0'' 


6 


^« 


ee 


9'— 0" 


5 « 


(( 


9'— 6" 


6 


<f 


ee 


9'— 6" 


5 " 


C( 


10'— 0'' 


5 


(( 


ee 


10'— 0" 


2 " 


« 


10'— 6'' 


4 


(I 


ee 


10'— 6" 


2 " 


(( 


ir— 0" 


3 


(( 


ee 


11'— 0" 


2 « 


<( 


ir— 6" 


2 


C( 


ee 


11'— 6" 


2 " 


ee 


12'— 0" 


2 


(( 


ee 


12'— 0" 


2 " 


i( 


12'— 6" 


2 


(I 


ee 


12'— 6" 


2 " 


(( 


13'— 0" 


2 


(( 


ee 


13'— 0" 


2 " 


i( 


13'— 6" 


3 


ee 


ee 


13'— 6" 


2 " 


i( 


14'— 0" 


2 


ee 


ee 


14'— 0" 


2 " 


(( 


14'— 6" 


3 


ee 


ee 


14'— 6" 


2 « 


(t 


15'— 0" 


2 


ee 


ee 


15'— 0" 



36 " Total = 2134' B.M. 42 " Total = 2499' B.M. 

Exclusive of head blocks. Exclusive of head blocks. 



Switch Ties for No. 8 
Turnout 



Switch Ties for No. 10 
Turnout 



No. 


Size 


Length 


No. 


Size 


Length 


2 pc. 


7" X 9" 


Head blocks 


2 


pc. 


7" X 9" 


Head blocks 


9 « 




9'— 0" 


9 


ee 


ei 


9'— 0" 


7 " 




9'— 6" 


10 


ee 


ee 


9'— 6" 


4 " 




10'— 0" 


6 


ee 


ee 


10'— 0" 


3 " 




10'— 6" 


4 


ee 


ee 


10'— 6" 


3 " 




11'— 0" 


4 


ee 


ee 


11'— 0" 


3 " 




11'— 6" 


3 


ee 


ee 


11'— 6" 


2 " 




12'— 0" 


3 


(( 


(t 


12'— 0" 


2 « 




12'— 6" 


3 


ee 


ee 


12'— 6" 


3 " 




13'— 0" 


2 


ee 


ee 


13'— 0" 


3 " 


ee 


13'— 6" 


3 


ee 


ee 


13'— 6" 


3 " 


ee 


14'— 0" 


3 


ee 


ee 


14'— 0" 


2 " 


ee 


14'— 6" 


2 


ee 


ee 


14'— 6" 


2 « 


ee 


15'— 0" 


3 


ft 


ee 


15'— 0" 



46 " Total = 2708' B.M.' 55 " Total = 3215' B.M. 

Exclusive of head blocks. Exclusive of head blocks. 



272 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



Switch Ties 


FOR No. 12 


Switch Ties 


FOR No. 15 




TUENOUT 






Turnout 


No. 


Size 


Length 


No. 




Size 


Length 


2 pc. 


T' X 9'' 


Head blocks 


2 


pc. 


7" X 9" 


Head blocks 


11 " 




9'— C' 


14 




« 


9'— 0" 


10 " 




9'— 6" 


9 




(( 


9'— 6" 


8 " 




10'— 0" 


9 




ii 


10'— 0" 


7 " 




10'— 6'' 


7 




(( 


10'— 6" 


5 " 




ir— 0" 


6 




t( 


11'— 0" 


4 « 




ir— 6" 


5 




K 


11'— 6" 


4 « 




12'— 0" 


5 




a 


12'— 0" 


3 " 




12'— 6" 


5 




a 


12'— 6" 


3 " 




13'— 0" 


4 




(I 


13'— 0" 


3 " 




13'— 6" 


4 




(I 


13'— 6" 


3 " 




14'— 0" 


4 




<( 


14'— 0" 


3 " 




14'— 6" 


4 


f< 


(( 


14'— 6" 


5 " 




15'— 0" 


4 


(( 


(e 


15'— 0" 



69 " Total = 4062' B.M. 
Exclusive of Head blocks. 



80 " Total = 4730' B.M. 
Exclusive of Head blocks. 



Switch Ties 


FOR No. 20 




Turnout 


No. 


Size 


Length 


2 pc. 


7" X 9" 


Head blocks 


18 " 


te 


9'— 0" 


18 " 


le 


9'— 6" 


8 " 


ee 


10'— 0" 


8 " 


« 


10'— 6" 


7 " 


(( 


11'— 0" 


7 " 


« 


11'— 6" 


6 « 


(( 


12'— 0" 


9 " 


(I 


12'— 6" 


9 " 


a 


13'— 0" 


6 « 


« 


13'— 6" 


6 " 


(( 


14'— 0" 


5 " 


ee 


14'— 6" 


5 " 


ee 


15'— 0" 


5 « 


ee 


15'— 6" 


5 " 


" 


16'— 0" 



122 " Total = 7486' B.M 

Exclusive of Head blocks. 



FROGS AND SWITCHES 



273 



Switch Ties for No. 6 
Crossover 



Switch Ties for No. 7 
Crossover 



No. 




Size 


Length 


No. 




Size 


Length 


4 


pc. 


V X 9" 


Head blocks 


4 


pc. 


7" X 9" 


Head blocks 


12 




(( 


9'— 0" 


12 


« 


li 


9'— 0" 


10 




a 


9'— 6" 


12 


te 


(t 


9'— 6" 


10 




(( 


10'— 0" 


10 


« 


(( 


10'— 0" 


4 




« 


10'— 6'' 


8 


<( 


« 


10'— 6" 


4 




(( 


ir— 0" 


6 


<e 


(( 


11'— 0" 


4 




ee 


ir— 6" 


4 


(( 


(I 


11'— 6" 


4 




(( 


12'— 0" 


4 


(( 


(( 


12'— 0" 


22 




C( 


21'— 6" 


26 


(( 


(( 


21'— 6" 



70 " Total = 5019' B.M. 82 " Total = 5906' B.M. 

Exclusive of Head blocks. Exclusive of Head blocks. 



Switch Ties for No. 8 



Switch Ties for No. 10 







Crossover 




Crossover 


No. 




Size 


Length 


No. 


Size 


Length 


4 


pc. 


7" X 9" 


Head blocks 


4 pc. 


7" X 9" 


Head blocks 


18 


« 


(t 


9'— 0" 


18 « 


(I 


9'— 0" 


14 


(( 


C( 


9'— 6" 


20 « 


(t 


9'— 6" 


8 


(( 


<e 


10'— 0" 


12 " 


i( 


10'— 0" 


6 


(C 


ie 


10'— 6" 


8 " 


(( 


10'— 6" 


6 


(( 


(( 


11'— 0" 


8 « 


(t 


11'— 0" 


6 


(e 


(C 


11'— 6" 


6 " 


(t 


11'— 6" 


4 


te 


(( 


12'— 0" 


6 « 


(( 


12'— 0" 


32 


(( 


(t 


21'— 6" 


31 " 


(t 


21'— 6" 



94 " Total = 6872' B.M. 
Exclusive of Head blocks. 



109 " Total = 7618' B.M. 

Exclusive of Head blocks. 



Switch Ties for No. 12 



Switch Ties for No. 15 





Crossover 




Crossover 


No. 


Size 


Length 


No. 


Size 


Lengtli 


4 pc. 


7" X 9" 


Head blocks 


4 pc. 


7" X 9" 


Head blocks 


22 " 


i( 


9'— 0" 


28 " 


" 


9'— 0" 


20 " 


(( 


9'— 6" 


18 " 


« 


9'— 6" 


16 " 


« 


10^—0" 


18 " 


ee 


10'— 0" 


14 " 


(C 


10'— 6" 


14 « 


ee 


10'— 6" 


10 " 


<t 


11'— 0" 


12 " 


ee 


11'— 0" 


8 " 


ie 


11'— 6" 


10 " 


ee 


11'— 6" 


8 " 


e< 


12'— 0" 


10 " 


ee 


12'— 0" 


39 " 


ii 


21'— 6" 


52 " 


ee 


21'— 6" 



137 " Total = 9618' B.M. 
Exclusive of Head blocks. 



162 " Total = 11734' B.M. 
Exclusive of Head blocks. 



274 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



Switch Ties 


FOR No. 20 




Crossover 


To. 


Size 


Length 


4 pc. 


r X 9' 


Head blocks 


36 " 


(( 


9'— 0" 


36 " 


iC 


9'— 6'' 


16 " 


(C 


10'— 0" 


16 " 


l( 


10'— 6" 


14 " 


(( 


ir— 0" 


14 " 


" 


ir— 6" 


12 " 


il 


12'— 0" 


63 " 


" 


21'— 6" 



207 " Total = 14742' B.M. 
Exclusive of Head blocks. 

To cut switch ties of the proper length. 

Rule — Measure the length of the tie next the head 
block and also the length of the last tie behind the 
frog. Find the difference in inches between the 
lengths of the two ties, divide this amount by the 
number of ties in the switch lead, and the quotient 
should be the increase in length per tie from the head 
block towards the frog, to have the ties line evenly 
on both sides of the track. 

Example — We will suppose the tie next to the head 
block to be 8 feet 6 inches, or 102 inches in length, 
and the last tie behind the frog, 14 feet or 168 inches 
in length. The difference in the lengths of these two 
ties is 5 feet 6 inches, or Q^ inches; dividing by 33, 
the number of ties, gives 2 inches as the amount that 
each tie must be longer than the last. 

Section foremen will find this rule valuable in many 
cases, especially when putting in a cross-over from 
one track to another. There is nothing gained by 
having switch ties project beyond the proper line of 
track. They cause trouble in raising track, are un- 
sightly, and labor is wasted in tamping up the long 
ends. The switch ties may be cut off to the proper 



FROGS AND SWITCHES 275 

length and numbered with chalk, and the line side 
marked for the rail flange before being put in the 
track. The work can be done in that way more rap^ 
idly and better, and the unnecessary labor of digging 
out for the tamping up of long ends can be dispensed 
with. 

Tamping switch ties. "When a switch track has 
been raised, to surface the track the switch ties under 
the frog and main track rail should be tamped up 
first. The long ends of switch ties should be tamped 
up last and then not as solid as those under the frog. 
Tamping bars should be used in tamping up a switch, 
and special care should be taken to make the ties as 
solid as possible under the frog. A turnout is all the 
better if the frog is a shade higher than the re- 
mainder. If the outer ends of switch ties are tamped 
up first, unless the timbers are very large they will 
sag down in the center and the ends turn up, espe- 
cially if a train is allowed to pass over the switch be- 
fore the ties are tamped throughout their length. 

A set of switch timbers may be put into a mud 
track very quickly, and with little or no tamping, by 
the following method: — Remove all the old timbers 
except a few to support the track rails. Raise the 
rails on the supporting* ties about a quarter of an inch 
higher than the track surface, and level them with a 
spirit level. Clear away a bed for the timbers equal 
to their depth, and spread a little loose dirt on it; 
then pull in the timbers, keeping their upper surface 
close up to the rails and each timber level throughout 
its length until it is in place. 

Putting in three-throw switches. The length of 
switch ties in a three-throw switch is found by 
doubling the set for a single turnout, and subtracting 
the length of the standard cross tie. When putting 
them in the track, measure the length of each tie and 
draw a chalk line across the middle; mark also the 



276 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



middle of the gage. Lay the gage on the main 
track, and as each tie is put nnder the track, see that 
the chalk mark across the middle of the tie comes di- 
rectly under the middle of the gage of the main 
track. The approximate number of the middle or 
crotch frog is found by multiplying the number of 
the side frogs by the decimal .707, or by adding the 
numbers of the two side frogs together and dividing 
by 2.83. 

Derailing switches. Fig. 58 illustrates a method 
of derailing cars and is used in cases where precau- 
tions are required to prevent cars from accidentally 
running out of the siding upon the main track. "When 
putting in this derailing switch, drive a row of spikes 
against the inside flange of the rail, C, when set for 



C/efi'ny 




/*fa/n 



Fiff. 58 



derailing and place rail braces on the outside to sup- 
port and keep the rail in place when set for movement 
to the main track. It is good policy to use sound oak 
ties, spaced not more than eight inches apart under 
the moving rail. This presents a smoother surface 
for the derailed cars than ties spaced in the ordinary 
way, and prevents the wheels from sinking between 
them. 

In setting up switch-stand, have the target show 
danger when the switch is set for derailing. 



FROGS AND SWITCHES 277 

Turnouts from curves. In turnouts from curves, 
the lead distance is practically the same as in turn- 
outs from a straight track. The degree of curve of 
the turnout is approximately increased by the degree 
of the main track curve, when the turnout is with 
the curve; and decreased by the degree of the main 
track curve, when the turnout is against the curve. 
In turnouts against curves, when the degree of the 
main track curve is the same as the turnout curve 
corresponding to the frog, the lead will be straight; 
when greater, the turnout curve will deflect in the 
same direction as the main track curve. As curves 
for the ordinary frog numbers are sharp, avoid as 
much as possible turnouts from the inside of the 
curve. 

In turnouts from curves the ordinates for a straight 
track will be increased by a certain rate per degree 
of main track curve, when the turnout is laid with the 
curve; and decreased by the same rate per degree 
when the turnout is laid against the curve. 

Example: — (1) Turnout against a main track 
curve of 4°, with a No. 8 frog. In the table for point 
leads, page 264, the degree of the turnout curve 
(Column D) from a straight track for a No. 8 lead 
is 12°-08'. Subtract from this the degree of the main 
curve 4°-00' and we have the difference of 8°-08', 
for the degree of curve of the switch track, which will 
curve in a direction opposite to that of the main 
track. 

(2) Turnout against a main track curve of 8°, with 
a No. 10 frog. Here the degree of the main track 
curve is 8°-0'; degree of the turnout, from table, 
7°-31'. This is flatter than the main curve by 0°-29', 
and the switch curve therefore will be in the same 
direction as the main track. Note that these figures 
are approximate only, and are subject to the remarks 
in the paragraph introductory to the table of Leads. 



278 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

Cross-over tracks. To put in a cross-over from one 
track to another where the work has not been laid 
out by an engineer: 

Rule — Put in the first frog and switch lead com- 
plete on one track. Then sight a straight line along 
the gage rail from opposite the point of frog, which 
you have just put in track, to the nearest rail of the 
adjoining track. Where the line crosses the rail is 
where the point of the next frog ought to be located 
to complete the cross-over if both frogs are of the 
same angle. 

To find the approximate distance between frog 
points in a cross-over: For 12-foot centers multiply 
2.58 by the number of the frog. If the distance be- 
tween centers is less than 12 feet, subtract the dif- 
ference from 2.58 ; if more, add the difference. Thus : 
Find distance between frog points on a No. 10 cross- 
over, distance between track centers, 12 feet; 2.58 X 
10, equals 25.8 feet. 

If the center distance is 11 feet, we have as follows : 
Eleven feet is one less than 12 feet; hence we sub- 
tract 1 from 2.58 and we have 1.58 ; if a No. 10 cross- 
over is to be put in we have: 1.58 X 10, or 15.8. If 
the center distance were 13 feet we would have 3,58 
X 10, or 35.8. These measurements are made on the 
main line rail. 

Another method, which is particularly important 
when the frogs used in the cross-over are of different 
angles, is as follows: Add the numbers of the two 
frogs together and divide by two. The result is the 
average number of frog for cross-over ; now multiply 
this by the distance between gag'c lines of inside 
rails, less the gage; or, where the distance between 
centers of two tracks is used, subtract twice the gage 
from this distance and multiply by average number 
of frog. 

Example. Distance between centers of two tracks 



FROGS AND S\\r[TCHES 279 

is 12 ft. It is desired to put in a cross-over, using a 
No. 10 and No. 8 frog. Proved according to rule: 
10 + 8 = 18 divided by 2 equals 9. Then 2.58 X 9 
= 23.22 ft. 

The distance between frog points diagonally in 
any cross-over track put in with the frogs mentioned 
in the table, for distances between tracks of 10 to 15 
feet is shown in the following table. Where the dis- 
tance between two tracks is greater than 12 feet, fore- 
men can calculate the distance between the frog points 
by the rules preceding this table : 

DISTANCE BETWEEN ADJACENT EAILS IN FEET 

Frog No. 7 8 9 10 11 12 

ft. in, ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 

5 11-6 16-6 21-6 26-6 31-6 36-6 

6 13-9 19-9 25-9 31-9 37-8 43-8 

7 16-0 23-0 30-0 37-0 44-0 51-0 

8 18-4 26-4 34-4 42-4 50-4 58-4 

9 20-8 ■ 29-8 38-8 47-8 56-7 65-8 

10 23-0 33-0 43-0 53-0 63-0 73-0 

11 25-3 36-3 47-3 58-3 69-3 80-2 

12 27-6 39-6 51-6 63-6 75-6 87-6 

15 34-4 49-4 64-4 79-4 94-4 109-4 

16 36-8 52-8 68-8 84-8 100-8 116-8 

20 46-0 66-0 80-0 106-0 126-0 145-9 

A reverse curve can be made in the cross-over be- 
tween tracks when they are very far apart, and there 
is not room to set it in the regular way. 

Staggered switch points on any curve. Mr. W. F. 
Rench of the P. R. R. has given in Ry. Age Gaz., the 
following very interesting description of a convenient 
and useful device for use on curves where the switch 
points are subject to heavy wear: 

"Considerable economy is effected in the wear of 
switch points in yards at points where the service is 
extreme by moving the point of lesser wear back a 
distance of 26 in., so that the first lug of the one point 
and the second lug of the other are opposite, and in- 



280 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

troducing a guard rail 9 or 10 ft. long curved sharply 
through 12 in. at the end which covers the switch and 
in the standard manner at the other end. The guard 
rail is set close to the one point which permits 12 in. 
of 2 in. flangeway opposite the longer point. This 
greatly increases the life of the point and is an excel- 
lent protection against derailment as well. One set 
of lugs must be connected with the standard head rod 
and for entire safety each lug should be connected 
with the one diagonally opposite. If made on a stand- 
ard plan these rods may be of regulation design, but if 
resort must be had to makeshift designs a flat made 
rod of 21/2 in. by I/2 in. material is quite satisfactory. 
Care should be taken that the guard rail, which is 
subject to a severe strain, is braced by anchor clamps 
and at least one tie plate guard rail fastener. 

''This arrangement has been used in a number of 
places where the wear is severe, but perhaps in none 
where the conditions are as extreme as at two switches 
in the Midvale Branch, a siding leading to the Penn- 
sylvania's Nicetown (Philadelphia) freight station, 
and to the plant of the Midvale Steel Company. 
These two switches follow each other closely and spring 
from the inside of a 17-deg. curve. Approximately 
30 movements are made over these switches every day. 

"At each one of the switches the high side point, 
applied new of P. R. R. 100-lb. material, formerly 
lasted just two months, it being a matter of actual 
knowledge that 12 switch points were consumed in the 
two places within a period of one year. Besides, it 
was the rule for a derailment to herald the time for 
renewal which by reason of the difficulties of access 
to this location usually involved an expense for the 
wrecking and repair of equipment equal to the value 
of a new point. It is three years since the points now 
in track, which were then close to the limit of safe 
wear, were cut back and the guard rails applied and 



FROGS AND SWITCHES 



281 



it is quite probable the points will still last two years 
longer. At this one location 60 switch points will 
have been saved in a period of five years, which rep- 
resents at least $1,200 in money. (Fig. 59.) 

Turnouts for narrow-gage track on industrial rail- 
way. Mr. Ealph D. Brown of the O'Gara Coal Com- 
pany has given the following useful notes which were 
published in Eng. News in 1916. 

The development of narrow-gage railway track is 
confined chiefly to limited layouts for industrial plants 
and to mining operations where limited clearances ne- 




Fig. 50. Staggered Switch Points on a Curve of Heavy Wear 



cessitate its use. A coal mining company operating 
many mines which had been developed independently 
was forced by economic necessity to standardize its 
equipment. As some of the mines were already de- 
veloped extensively, it was not considered advisable 
to relay the tracks entirely to change the gage, but it 
was found possible to use one type of frog and switch 
for all turnouts. 

Standard designs were adopted, and the results of 
computations were placed in tabular form for the 
use of the construction gang. Certain assumptions 
had to be made, such as the length of the wing rails 
of the frog and the heel distance of the switch, but 
they were all within the limits of accepted practice and 



282 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



can be applied to any industrial-track system. The 
designs of the frog and switch point, shown in Fig. 
60 were made after considering both simplicity and 
economy of construction. Any ordinary blacksmith 
or ironworker will make these parts without difficulty. 
The cost of making a No. 5 frog and two 6-ft. switch 
points at a well-equipped mine shop was as follows: 



^X/^ 




Hee/D/sipnce4i"., 



tcjS 



Both 



Frog 





[2^^-. 



^Ik 



a 



End Eleva+»on 



Switch 

Fig. 60 



F >J 

Eleva+ion 



Side 



Material, $6.37; labor of blacksmith and machinist, 
$6.58; total, $12.95. 

A cast-steel frog supplied by manufacturers at a 
cost of about $6.50 is inherently more rigid than the 
riveted frog, but unless unusual precaution is taken it 
is difficult to fasten it securely to the ties. In order 
to stiffen the riveted structure, cast-iron fillers may 
be added which also support the flanges of the wheels 
in passing over the throat of the frog, thus relieving 
the jar to the rolling stock. 



FROGS AND SWITCHES 2,83. 

In designing various parts of the turnouts it was 
kept in mind that all such turnouts may be of only 
temporary usefulness in one particular location, and 
that the constituent parts may be used many times be- 
fore being cast aside as useless. The standard frog 
is somewhat shorter than one designed to the speci- 
fications of the American Railway Engineering As- 
sociation. 

The cost of laying and ballasting a No. 5 turnout 
complete, as shown in Fig. 61, was as follows : 

One 30 lb. No. 5 frog and two 6 ft. points $12.95 

40 ties, 5x6 in., @ 20c 8.00 

Spikes, bolts, tie plates, etc 75 

1 low switch stand and rods 2.25 

2 headblocks, 5x6 in. — 8 ft. long 1.00 

Total material $24.95 

Laying, 16 hr. @ 351/2C 5.68 

Ballasting and surfacing, 8 hr. @ 851/20 2.84 

Total labor $8.52 

Total cost of material and labor $33.47 

The dimensions of the standard frogs, switches and 
turnouts are given at the end of Chapter X'XIII. The 
formulas used for the turnouts are as follows : 

^, , , ^, -r^ G — B sin X — F sin Y 
Chord length U= ,;„ y^ (x + Y) 

_, ^ . _ G — B sin X — F sin Y . , ^, 

Radius R= = — — %G 

cos Y cos -X- 

Lead S= (R + 1/9G) (sin X — sin Y) 

+ B cos X + F + 

in which 

X = Frog angle ; 
Y = Angle of point rail ; 
B = Length of wing rail ; 
F = Length of switch rail ; 



284 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

= Distance between actual and theoretical frog 

point, taken as 2 in. ; 
G = Gage of track ; 
R = Radius of turnout. 

The dimension of was taken as 2 in. and the heel 
distance of switch points as 4i/4 in. 

The spacing of the ties depends on the size of the 
tie and the style of the turnouts. If the regular set 
of switch ties is used as in standard-gage trackwork, 
5 X 6-in. ties spaced 18 in. c. to c. will give good re- 
sults for track laid with rails weighing up to 40 lb. 
per yd. If the turnout is laid with ties of even length 




Fig. 61 

staggered in, as shown in Fig. 61, a spacing of 16 to 18 
in. centers for each branch has proved satisfactory. 
This style of construction is specially well adapted to 
underground turnouts, where headroom is limited and 
flat ties 3 by 5 in. or 3 by 6 in. are used. . ^ ^ . , 
Too often the trackwork for mines and industrial 
works is poorly executed, due to lack of experience 
of the tracklayers and construction foremen. The es- 
sential requirements do not differ from those ot the 
standard gage, and true alignment and surface may 
be obtained by intelligent supervision. 



raw^^^^m 



FROGS AND SWITCHES 285 

Crossing of narrow and standard gage track. Mr. 

T. C. Herbert of the P. C. C. & St. Louis Ry., in con- 
nection with the second track and grade reduction 
work on that road between Alton, Ohio, and Glade 
Run, as described in the Ry. Age Gaz., gives the fol- 
lowing very interesting arrangement (Fig. 62) : 

This crossing was subjected to considerable use by 
both standard and narrow gage equipment, but there 
was not time nor justification for the installation of 
a special crossing frog, neither were there any mov- 
able or double-point frogs available. So it was de- 
cided to construct a crossing out of standard frogs and 
switches which were on hand. The crossing, as shown 
by the illustration, consisted of two No. 8 frogs and 



„^,„ ,raa 








7 [Oinkey tn=ck __--Tr==========S:^======Y-\^^ "^y 


X-i^--^--^ ^ 


\^^___^^._ir!f:^L^s'v 



Fig. 62. Details of Crossing of Standard Gage and Narrow 
Gage Track Using Only Standard Frogs and Switches 

four switch points operated separately with a switch- 
stand for each point. The switch targets showed 
white when set for the normal position in line for 
side track movements. 

A crossing watchman, who also acted as a switch 
tender, was kept on duty during the working hours of 
the contractor, and at night the crossing was locked 
clear for the side track. It would be possible to pipe 
connect such a crossing with the main track switch, 
thus eliminating the necessity for a watchman, and 
this would perhaps be advisable if traffic over the 
crossing were very light. In an emergency such a 
crossing could be used on main track by pipe-connect- 
ing the crossing switch points with the signals. 

The crossing, as constructed, was installed by a 



286 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

gang of 25 men in seven hours, and as there was no 
charge for material the entire cost amounted to only 
$35. 

Frogs in a ladder track. Inexperienced foremen 
sometimes find it difficult to locate the frogs in a lad- 
der track in such a manner as to avoid leaving kinks 
either in the ladder track or in the tracks which run 
parallel to the main track. The places for the points 
of frogs can readily be located in the following man- 
ner : — 

Rule: Stretch a string along the gage line of the 
ladder track rail 4 ft. 8V2 in. from the gage* line of the 
frog in the main track, measured on the side towards 




Fig. 63. Frogs in a Ladder Track 

the proposed side tracks — (AB, fig. 63). Then set 
two stakes CD, CD, etc., in the gage line of the rail 
nearest main track for each of the parallel side tracks. 
These stakes should contain tacks accurately set and 
at least 75 ft. apart. Of each pair of tacks C D, the 
one nearest the ladder track, C, should be not more 
than 25 ft. from where you think the frog is to be. 
The desired locations of the theoretical points of frogs 
for the ladder track are at the intersections of the 
string AB and the lines given by strings stretched 
over the tacks at C D-C D, etc. 

The above rule will work well where the two tracks 
diverge at an angle corresponding to the frog angle, 



FROGS AND SWITCHES 



287 



but where this angle of divergence is different from 
the frog angle in the main track, or when the tracks 
running from the ladder track are not parallel to 
the main track, these will meet the ladder track at 
a special angle and will leave the ladder track on a 
curve, or else will require a frog of special number, 
which can be ascertained by the following method: 

To ascertain the number of frog needed. The lines 
in the diagram. Fig. 64, represent the rails of two 
tracks. Measure across between the track rails at the 
points marked A and B, each of which is at an equal 
distance from C, where the rails cross, then measure 
the distance, C B. Now divide the distance, C B, by 




Fig. G4. Diagram for Determining Frog No. 



the distance, A B, and the result will be the number 
of the frog required. Suppose the distance, A B, is 
twelve inches, and the distance, C B, nine feet; it 
would require a one to nine frog, or as it is generally 
called, a number nine frog. The distance, A B, may 
be measured where the rails or lines are only six or 
eight inches apart, but the result will always be the 
same in proportion to the distance from C to B. 
Where tracks are to run parallel with each other, it 
is best to gage the distance they are to be apart by 
measuring from the nearest rail of a permanent track 
adjoining, if in good line, or from the center of the 
main track in yards. 



288 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

In ladder tracks the distance between frog points, 
where they are all of the same number, is approxi- 
mately equal to the distance between track centers 
multiplied by the frog number. 



XIX 

USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 

Tidy tool houses. Most railways furnish tool 
houses with ample room for a hand car and all the 
tools necessary for a section gang, and with a little 
pains on our part we can arrange them so that each 
tool may have its own place, and be kept there when 
not in use. By taking a look at a foreman's tool 
house a fair idea of his ability may be gained. If he 
has a tidy and well arranged tool house, with the hand 
car and tools all in good working order, you can rest 
assured that there is some well-kept track not far 
away. 

Foremen are expected to send their tools to the 
shops to be repaired, or to be replaced by new ones 
whenever necessary, so there is seldom any excuse for 
having tools on hand which are not in working order. 

There is probably a difference of opinion as to just 
how each tool should be used, but there is no room 
for argument on the proposition that there should be 
an individual system of use and care for track tools, 
and that the best should be given. 

The Axe. The first thing needed for it is a 
handle, which should be snugly fitted, and firmly 
wedged in. Next, it should be ground sharp, and kept 
in that condition; it should not be used for anything 
but chopping or splitting. 

Adze. It takes some practice to learn to use an 
adze properly, and leave the ties smoothly adzed. In 
adzing down old ties, cut deep enough so that the 

289 



290 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

edge of the adze will go beneath the flange of rail and 
thus avoid dulling the adze. When adzing ties on 
curves, great care should be exercised to adze them 
uniformly and to a proper depth, always keeping a 
lookout for stub spikes, or anything that may dull 
the tool unnecessarily. The adze should not be used 
as a hammer, nor for anything but adzing. A handle 
is very easily adjusted to this tool, but is easily broken 
if not handled properly. 

Hand cars. Oil boxes should be frequently re- 
packed, as the packing soon becomes filled with sand. 
Keep all boxings fitted snug ; when they become worn, 
file or grind them down. Keep all keys tight, as well 
as all bolts and nuts. Do not let cogs mesh deep 
enough *to grind. See that the driving arm is not too 
short or too long so as to throw one end of the walking 
beam too high and the other too low. Drop a little 
oil on all the bearings often. Do not use much at a 
time, but apply frequently. Care should be exercised 
when putting the car on and off the track. A little 
pains should be taken to instruct men in pumping a 
car so that they pump steadily and together, and in 
going up grade or against the wind to pump on the 
up stroke as well as on the down. Keep the car going 
at a brisk rate, for it is easier to keep it going in that 
way than it is to pump when the speed gets low. 

Hand cars are in universal use, and a car which 
will give good service on an American road will be 
equally desirable and useful on any railroad. To be 
desirable a hand car should be light, speedy, strong, 
durable, and of simple construction, so that the sec- 
tion men can perform minor repairs without having 
to send it to the shop. With these qualities it will 
pay for itself in a year in time saved and useful work 
performed. 

Several manufacturers make a specialty of building 
improved hand cars, any of which are preferable to 



USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 



291 



the "home made" ones which come from the railway 
shop. 

Buda No. 1 Standard Rand Car. The following 
standard specifications apply to the car illustrated in 
Fig. 65 : 

Gage: Standard 4' Si/o". 









1-^^ .;v^<.s"f. ^~i:l 




Fig. 65. Hand Car 



Wheels: 20'' diameter, Buda pressed steel. 

Axles: ly/ diameter, open hearth steel. Taper 
wheel fit. 

Weight: 525 pounds. 

Gears: Eegularly equipped with machine-cut 
helical gears. Can equip with cut spur gears, if de- 
sired, 



292 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



Platform: 6 feet long by 4 feet, 5 inches wide. 

Remarks: For roads having block signals with 
track circuit, this car can be insulated. 

The modern type of section car is motor driven and 
effects very considerable economy, due to saving the 
time and strength of the men. 

Cost of operating motor cars. Mr. J. L. Walsh 
of the M. K. & T. Railway says in Ry. Age Gaz. that 
in 1913 and 1914 this organization was furnished 10 




Fig. 66. Gasoline Motor Section Car 



Fairbanks-Morse No. 32 motor cars at a total cost of 
$2,444. These cars in 13 months made 80,465 miles, 
consuming 2,701 gallons of gasoline at a cost of 
$256.63, with oil and other supplies costing $75.61. 
The mileage was 29.9 per gallon of gasoline. 

Upon putting the cars in service on the Kansas City 
division the number of sections was reduced from 16 
to 12 of eight miles each. The total cost of track 
labor for 13 months decreased $3,326.80, which lie at- 
tributes to the use of these cars. 



USE AND CAKE OF TRACK TOOLS 293 

111 proportioning" the money saved he considers that 
the largest saving was going to and from work, since 
under ordinary conditions the cars will make a speed 
of 20 miles per hour, enabling the men to start to 
work fresh from 30 to 45 minutes earlier than they 
would on the hand car, and allowing them to work a 
correspondingly larger number of hours without 
greater fatigue. The total saving thus effected at 13,- 
134 man hours amounted to $1,970.10, which will pay 
for the cars in 15 months. 

Another advantage of the cars is that the foreman 
can leave most of his gang on a piece of work and go 
over his section with one man, but in doing this he 
ought to be very sure that he can get the car off the 
track with one man helping fast enough to avoid get- 
ting hit by a train. 

The cars accommodate 10 men together with track 
tools and can handle the push car with from 25 to 
40 ties without much trouble ; moreover with the 
push car they can handle 20 or 25 men in extra gang 
work. Mr. Walsh also used these cars in bridge 
work. He had for this purpose a Buda motor car 
No. 19 equipped with a free-running engine, and he 
found that it was possible to eliminate four moves 
of the bridge outfit per month, the average move be- 
ing about 25 miles. 

Hand cars and speeders. Mr. C. E. Foreman has 
given the following valuable suggestions in Railway 
Engineering and Maintenance of Way. 

''Most hand cars are manufactured with a view to 
light running, and consequently the majority of new 
cars when received are squared up and true. How- 
ever, if not, they should be trued up by loosening the 
bolts which fasten the boxes in which the axle re- 
volves, and moving one end of the axle forward or 
back to a position where there will be no tendency 
for the flange of any of the wheels to bind against 



294 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



the rail when the car is moved forward on straight 
track. 

''Flanges binding against the rail cause more hard 
bumping than any other single defect. When axles 
are in proper condition tighten the bolts firmly and 
see that they are kept tight. Hand cars should be 
tried out frequently to see if they are 'true,' as set- 
ting cars off and on the track, pushing them loaded 



/^Wrong Position 
^for Axle 



flange 
BinCiing- 



"^"Correcf Position 
for Axle 



flange 
Binding 




-Correct Position 
for meet 



1"^ 



fpnge . 
Binaing 



Wrcna Position . 
for Wlieel 



Fig. 67. Correct and Incorrect Positions of Axle 

with tools over highway crossings, rough handling, 
etc., is very liable to loosen and move the boxes from 
their proper positions. 

"Binding may also be caused by a wheel not run- 
ning parallel to the track, although the axle may be 
in proper position. (See Fig. 67.) This, in a new 
car, is clearly the fault of the manufacturer and 
should be remedied in a shop. Binding occasionally 



USE AND CAEE OF TRACK TOOLS 295 

is caused by a crooked wheel or 'a wheel which has 
the snakes.' If the wheel cannot be straightened and 
trued up a new wheel should be obtained. 

"Most handcars have their 'Front' and 'Rear' ends 
marked, and if the wheels and axles are properly trued 
up the car will always run lighter when placed on 
the track with the ' Front ' end in the direction of 
travel. This is especially true when running around 
curves. All wheels except the 'loose wheel' should 
be keyed tightly to the axle and not allowed to work 
loose or get out of position so that they bind. The 
loose wheel should be painted a conspicuous color or 
otherwise marked so as to be readily located, and then 
the car can be turned by lifting the end opposite that 
which the loose wheel is on. Proper lubrication of 
the loose wheel makes pumping easier around curves 
on account of the unequal distance traveled by the 
inner and outer wheel. 

"Next in importance to binding comes grinding. 
Grinding in the bearings may be due to lack of oil, 
but it is safe to say that more frequently it is due 
to dirt and sand in the bearings. Hand cars should 
never be used to transport sand and gravel, but in 
case it has to be done the bearings and oil holes should 
be protected from all dirt and sand. 

"Exterior surfaces around bearings and oil holes 
should be kept clean of oil and grease and the conse- 
quent accumulation of dirt. Never oil the cogs of the 
gear wheels in either a speeder or hand car. While 
good clean oil will reduce friction between the cogs, 
the oil will also cause an accumulation of dirt, sand 
and cinders, and before long the teeth will be choked 
with a hard, gritty mass that will cause the car to 
drag, even down grade. 

' ' Bolts and screws holding the frame together should 
be kept reasonably tight, but should never be turned 
excessively tight, especially where the heads or nuts 



296 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER' 

and washers sink into the wood. Unless the nuts on 
the underside of the platform are tightened occasion- 
ally, especially those with which oil comes in contact, 
they will jar loose and the lower half of a bearing box 
may drop off unnoticed. 

"The care and operation of speeders (three-wheel 
velocipede cars) requires more attention than of heav- 
ier four-wheel handcars. Binding here is more fre- 
quent and, since usually only one or two men are 
pumping, more noticeable. Fig. 67 represents the 
conditions ordinarily found. The front wheel on the 
load-bearing side (right side) should be very slightly 
turned toward the rail, as shown, exaggerated, in the 
lower view of Fig. 67, but should not bind enough to 
make pumping difficult. This position of the wheel is 
necessary in order to make certain of the car keeping 
the rails when going around curves to the right, espe- 
cially if the curvature is sharp. If the speeder is to 
be used only on tracks having very light curves the 
wheel can be advantageously placed parallel with the 
rail and it will be found that the car will keep the 
rails unless there are other faults, such as sprained or 
badly worn frame or parts, etc. 

''Speeders, which are necessarily built light, should 
be handled with more care than heavy handcars, as 
shocks and derailments are liable to cause sprains or 
breaks. While these damages may be repaired, it is 
usually found that the car does not run as easily as be- 
fore, on account of failure to restore exact former con- 
ditions. Rough usage in loading and unloading 
speeders for shipment is frequently the cause of a car 
running heavy. Personal attention to this feature, 
instead of leaving it to the baggageman or freight 
handlers, will lessen the labor of pumping. 

''A speeder which is used regularly should be 
cleaned periodically. The ball bearings and retainers 
should be removed and thoroughly cleaned with kero- 



USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 



297 



sene. Examine the bearings for rough spots and if 
found replace with new parts. When replacing, pack 
the ball bearings in a generous amount of clean vase- 
line. 

' ' Under heavy loads or usage a grinding or ' screech- 
ing' will sometimes develop in the wheel bearings, al- 
though they may be well oiled. This denotes a worn 




Fig. 68. Single Speeder 



retaining cup or a broken ball bearing. These should 
be replaced at once, else the damage will spread to 
all the ball bearings, the cups and the axle, besides in- 
creasing the labor necessary to propel the car. 

' ' Attention to the details mentioned, by the man who 
has considerable pumping to do, will result in the sav- 
ing of a great deal of unnecessary hard labor. The 



298 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



writer has found this to be true by trying it out. In 
one season from March to September, inclusive, the 
writer has, with a partner, covered over 2,500 miles 
on a No. 3 velocipede car. By keeping the car in 
proper condition a mileage of 56 miles was made in 
one day, and 65 miles the following day; these dis- 
tances heing over ordinary track and grades, including 
the climbing of a long divide; one day facing a 'head- 
wind' and the following day pumping with the wind. 




Fig. 69. Gasoline Speeder. Weight 320 lbs. 

"The 'head-wind' always has been and always will 
be the pumper 's worst enemy. We cannot control it ; 
but we can control the condition in which we keep 
the hand cars and speeders which we pump every 
day." 

Speeders are made with three or four wheels, ar- 
ranged to be propelled by hand as well as driven by 
mechanical motors. This latter mode of operation has 
gained in favor of late years and is particularly ad- 
vantageous for roadmasters who have to cover long 
distances, or for inspection trips where considerable 



USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 299 

speed is required, and where the working of the levers 
of a hand car would interfere with the view of the 
inspectors. 

Claw bars. Nothing will cause more annoyance 
than a poor claw bar, one on which claws are too far 
apart at toe or close together, neck not properly bent, 
heel out of proportion to claws, and so on. Most of 
these things can be remedied at shops. When they are 
sent in to be remedied a letter and a sketch should be 
sent along if possible, showing what changes should be 
made. A good many of the claw bars now in use 
would be more valuable to the company in the scrap 
pile than anywhere else. 

Cross cut saws. Strict attention should be paid to 
filing and setting saws. They should be carried on the 
car and kept in tool house in such position that the 
teeth will not come in contact with other metal tools. 
Men should stand squarely opposite each other when 
sawing, each dragging the saw toward him, but never 
pushing the saw. A saw in good running order does 
not need any crowding. 

Cold chisels. A full complement of these should al- 
ways be kept on hand. It is the custom when using a 
chisel to stick any kind of a hard wood piece into it for 
a handle, but it pays to fit good handles to chisels, as 
well as other tools, so that you will not have to stop 
to insert handles while cutting a rail. A great many 
chisels are spoiled by not being properly held. If a 
chisel has good temper and is not broken too badly it 
is better to grind it down than to send it to the shop ; 
but if it cannot be ground down profitably, it should 
be sent to the shop at once, not kept around the tool 
house. 

Track gage. The gage should be made to serve a 
better purpose than merely to mark the standard dis- 
tance between the rails. A wooden gage may do well 
when ends are well bound with iron, but a metal gage is 



300 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

better. There should be a fork on one end to pre- 
vent the gage from falling on its side when spiking, 
and also to square it across the track. This end should 
be fastened solid, either welded or screwed and riveted 
to the end of a wrought iron pipe. On the other end 
of this pipe, the single end of the gage, the lug should 
be adjustable; it should be screwed up tight on the 
pipe when standard gage is desired, and lengthened 
out as necessary when gage is widened on curves. A 
small thumb screw through the adjustable lug, with a 
narrow seat planed on the pipe will hold the lug in 
place, and this screw seat can also hold oil to keep 
thread from rusting and turning hard. The lugs 
should be of the same size on both ends 1% inches 
wide and 1% inches deep. This would be satisfactory 
under all circumstances and is simple ; strong with no 
delicate parts to break; will adjust to widen gage on 
curves; the width of the lugs is standard guard rail 
distance; the depth of the lugs will show if blocks in 
switches are clear of wheel flanges, allowing one- 
fourth inch extra as flanges on wheels are generally 
1% inches deep ; the wide lugs on double end of gage 
will fit snugly between wing rail and point of frog 
and stay there, while the single end will show where 
to set the guard rail regardless of how wide the track 
is. This gage will pay for itself in the saving of wear 
of frog points alone, besides other services that it can 
render while gaging track on curves. 

Lining bars. Some of the bars in use are of iron 
and are too heavy. A steel bar weighing about twenty 
pounds, with chisel point on square or bottom end of 
bar, and sharp pointed at small end, is about right. 
Lining track is probably one of the most difficult 
things a foreman has to do. Where track has just 
been raised, take only enough men and bars to move 
traek easily. Don't let men stick the bars in the 
ground at too great an angle ; if they do they will raise 



USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 301 

the track wlien they throw it over, and if the ballast is 
sandy some of it will run under the ties and spoil the 
surface. When lining track where it is hard to move, 
bars should be struck firmly in the ground before heav- 
ing on them, for if one bar slips all the other men have 
to wait while that one is being replaced. Men must 
always pull together, and always be ready when the' 
word is given • the foreman should keep as far back as 
he can, to see well and avoid putting swings in the 
track. Some of the little defects can be taken out at 
short range. 

Lanterns should always be kept in perfect order, 
for you never know at what moment you will need 
them, and you are always in a hurry when you do. 
The lanterns usually furnished are good to use for 
signals, but give little light to work by. A couple of 
engineer 's torches will give more light than a dozen 
lanterns. Every trackman should know all lamp sig- 
nals thoroughly, and when placing danger or slow 
signals care should be taken to set them in plain view 
of an approaching train. Be sure to have them out 
the full distance required by the book of rules. If you 
err at all, be on the safe side. It is a short job to 
place signals, and serious accidents will be prevented 
often if they are put out properly. If you have any 
doubt about the stability of a piece of track, don't hesi- 
tate to use your signals. Be on the safe side. 
Lanterns, after being used, should have the oil taken 
out and put back in the oil can. Clean the globes, trim 
the wicks and set them in a safe place. If lanterns re- 
main a long time without use the wicks should be 
changed or they will not burn well. When putting 
out lanterns as danger or slow signals, be sure that 
they are in good trim with plenty of oil. Signal oil 
gets too thick if it stands very long in small cans. 
When it does not burn well add kerosene to it. A 
few extra globes should always be kept on hand. 



302 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

Spike mauls. About eight pounds is the right 
weight. Select the straightest handle for this, fit it 
snug and wedge it tight. If the eye is not straight in 
the hammer, which is often the case, file it out as 
nearly straight as possible with a rat-tail file. If face 
of hammer gets too rounded, file or grind it down. To 
drive a spike properly, stand at side of rail and start 
the spike perpendicular to the tie; never allow it to 
slant under the rail. A spike may be leaned a little 
from you when started, but the second blow should 
straighten it up. Stand with heels close together, use 
full length of handle, and give long, swinging strokes 
when spiking. 

A shovel is the tool the trackman uses most and the 
incorrect use of it causes him to waste more time than 
in almost any other way. Therefore it is necessary 
for him to know some of the principles governing its 
work, and he should be continually on the alert to 
apply those principles in his daily practice. Most men 
think that shoveling is a perfectly easy, perfectly nat- 
ural, and perfectly simple thing to do, and so it is 
when it is done without regard to the economy of the 
work or its quality; but when both these things are 
considered, shoveling is one of the most difficult of 
processes to perform properly. Hence, a brief refer- 
ence to some of the principles involved in it will not be 
amiss in this book. 

In order to accomplish the most work in a day, a 
man must perform the smallest amount of unnecessary 
muscular effort, to do which each motion should have 
the right direction with only the necessary amount of 
force. Now, in shoveling, two or three principal oper- 
ations are performed. In the first place, the shovel 
must be pushed into the material or under the ma- 
terial to be lifted. Secondly, the man must raise the 
shovel and with it his own body, get ready to throw, 
or swing the shovel back, and next he must throw, for- 



USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 303 

ward or side-wise, the shovel with its load, and a part 
of his own body also. Finally, he must stop the shovel 
and allow the load of the shovel to go on its way to 
its intended place. These operations may be listed as 
follows : — 

1. Penetration 4. Throw. 

2. Elevation. 5. Recover. 

3. Swing-back 

It is clear that for some of these operations, certain 
kinds of shovels are particularly adapted, and for 
other kinds of operations other kinds of shovels are 
better. For instance, for penetrating tough ground in 
digging ditches, a square tamping shovel is one of the 
yorst tools that can be used. Its cutting edge is not 
particularly sharp, it is wide and there is a poor place 
on it for a man's foot to push on. The average laborer 
will accomplish less than half as much work in digging 
ditches with a standard track shovel as he can with a 
round pointed shovel of proper size. It is thus evi- 
dent that when the work to be done involves pene- 
trating tough material, a penetrating shovel should be 
used rather than a tamping shovel. It is also clear 
that for throwing dirt, for instance, there are large 
shovels and small shovels to be used for heavy ma- 
terials and light ones. The very large shovel should 
not be used for heavy material, nor should the small 
shovel be used for light material. If you give your 
men shovels which are designed for handling soft coal 
and they have to use them to throw iron ore the men 
will either stop work entirely or else in a short time 
they will become so tired as to very greatly reduce 
the day's output. On the other hand, if you give a 
man a standard track shovel and set him to work 
shoveling sawdust, his strokes will be perhaps a little 
faster than if he were shoveling dirt, but they will not 



304', THE TRACKMAN'S HELPBE, 

be enough faster to make up for the tremendous de- 
ficiency in the weight of material on the shovel, so that 
in the same amount of time he will throw perhaps a 
third as much sawdust as he would if he had a proper 
shovel for the purpose. 

A most important feature in the economy of shovel 
work is the length of the shovel handle. If a nian 
were to raise his body up and down, bending forward 
and bending back, without doing any other 'work at 
all, at the end of a whole day of that sort of thing he 
would be very tired without having accomplished any- 
thing. In working with a short-handled shovel, this 
is to some extent jilst what he does, with a great deal 
of effort. Whenever he lifts a shovelful of dirt he 
lifts several times that weight in his own body, and the 
weight of his own body that he lifts is just as tiresome 
to him as the weight of material on the shovel that he 
lifts, plus the weight of the shovel itself . Now, with a 
long-handled shovel he can stand up almost straight 
and with yery little bending of his back and almost no 
bending of his hips, he can throw his shovelful of ma- 
terial without doing much of the unnecessary work of 
lifting his body. A great many men, especially track 
laborers, are accustomed to work with short-handled 
shovels and do not like to use long-handled ones when 
they are first given them. But after they have been 
trained to the use of long-handled shovels, especially 
for deep trench work, shoveling into a wagon, or for 
any purpose in which the delivery point is abbve the 
height of the waist, they take very kindly to the long- 
handled shovel, and in a day's work will accomplish a 
great deal more, generally speaking, than with a short- 
handled tool. When mixing concrete by hand the ma- 
terial can be lifted much more easily if the shovels are 
square pointed and are shoved along a platform, pre- 
ferably of sheet iron or boards laid lengthwise of the 
movement of the shovel. When loading into cars 



USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 



305 



from a platform, whenever possible the men should 
work parallel with the planks of the platform; when 
working across them the edges of the shovel stick at 
the edges of the plank and can account for a sur- 
prisingly small output of work. 




Long Handle 
Round Point Shove! 




Ballast ForK Round Point Shovel 



Tamping Bar ^p ";-- 

Fig. 70. Various Types of . Shovels 



The foreman should see to it that several kinds of 
shovels are kept in the tool house, and he should make 
a practice of timing his men by counting how many 



306 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

shovelfuls they throw per minute. In this way he will 
soon be able to become an expert on economical shovel- 
ing. To accomplish this result it is not necessary to 
drive the men or to try them with the wrong sized 
shovel in order to determine the amount of work ac- 
complished. The proper selection of tools is always 
appreciated by the men and they will always work 
more willingly, more intelligently and more effectively 
with proper tools. For ordinary average shoveling in 
earth a shovel which carries about 20 lb. of material 
is about right; for high lifts or very long casts, one 
size smaller than this should be used. 

Fig. 70 gives an idea of the various types of shovels 
most suitable for different kinds of work. 

Tamping bars should be made of seven-eighths in. 
iron or steel, length 5% ft., sharp-pointed at upper 
end, have a tamping face four inches wide, and five- 
eighths inch thick, and weigh about 14 lbs., the neck 
bent so that the tamping face will be in right position 
when bar is held at an angle of about 45 degrees. 
"When tamping face gets too thin send to shop to be 
refaced. Always be sure to remove enough dirt so 
that the tie can be well tamped ; reach under the rail so 
that all the space under the tie will be tamped. Never 
slight this work nor allow the men to do so. 

Track flags. Always have the flags with you, and 
always place them at the extreme limit required by 
the book of rules under which you are working. 

Always send a trusty man to do the flagging. Flags 
when not in use should be encased in something that is 
water proof. 

Tape lines. It often happens that a cloth tape line, 
after being wet two or three times, will shrink, and 
be too short ; therefore measure them once in a while 
and see if they are accurate. Of course it is best not 
to get them wet, but sometimes it cannot be avoided. 
Steel tapes are not subject to this difficulty but are 



USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 



307 



liable to rust and must be kept oiled. Have a box to 
keep the tape line in when not in your pocket. 

Track level. When surfacing track never try to get 
along without the level, but try it every day it is used 
to see that it is in correct adjustment. A good track 
level is one made of wood, 1% inches thick by 3 inches 
wide, bound with iron strap at one end, and the other 
end having an iron or brass cap fitted over it and an 
iron standard 5 or more inches long through it; 
standard to be one-half inch square and graduated to 
one-eighth inch. Standard should slide easily either 
way, and have a set screw to hold it at any desired 
place. The end with the standard will, of course, be 
the heavier, and the handle should not be in the center, 
but should be placed so that the level will balance when 




Fig. 71. Track Level 



picked up. The track level should be used continu- 
ally, especially on track which was never ballasted, or 
which was surfaced hurriedly without using a level. 
If you have surfaced a piece of track to a perfect level, 
then you can sight the depressions in the surface with- 
out using the spirit level when going over it a second 
time if the track has not become rough. 

Section foremen in charge of new track should make 
it their business to improve the line and surface as 
fast as possible with the force allowed them, before 
the track settles or the ballast becomes a solid mass. 
"While the ties and rails are new is the time to make 
a good track. 

Track wrenches. Each section should have as many 
track wrenches as there are men in the gang. It takes 
a little practice to use a wrench quickly and handily. 



308 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



The nuts should be well tightened and then hit with 
the hammer and tightened again. Where nutlocks 
are used nuts will not need to be as tight as where 
there are none. Wrenches should be made of one 




Fig. 72. Typical Track Jack 



piece of steel, and have four sides to the jaws, so as to 
fit square or hexagonal nuts. 

Monkey wrenches. One should go with every hand- 
car. Don 't use it for a hammer ; keep it in good work- 
ing order to tighten nuts. 



USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 309 

Drawing knives and hand axes are very handy for 
putting in new handles and are often useful when 
making repairs around tool houses or other buildings. 
They need to be kept very sharp and should have a 
special place in the tool house. 

A grindstone is a most necessary tool and should be 
turned steadily and tools held square to avoid wearing 
the face of the stone unevenly. 

Track jacks. Every section foreman should have a 
track jack along with his other track tools, and he 
should always carry it with him on the hand car, and 
have it ready to use whenever it is necessary to raise 
track. A good track jack is one of the best and most 
economical tools that can be used on a railroad. 

There are few things that look more ridiculous than 
three or four men making futile efforts to raise a rail 
with a long bar or track lever and a block of wood 
which is either too high or too low. The ingenuity or 
ignorance of the whole gang is displayed a score of 
times during the day, whenever the block will not do 
to raise the track to the proper height, and valuable 
time is lost in trying to find a stone, a chunk of wood 
or a spike to increase the leverage, and which is seldom 
or never thought of until the moment it is wanted. 
Sometimes the spikes are pulled out of one or two 
ties in every rail length, and the track is raised from 
the tops of the' ties. This method also causes a con- 
siderable loss of time, pulling the spikes and respik- 
ing the ties, besides the injury done the ties when the 
old spike holes are left open to rot the wood. Raising 
track with a lever pulls the rails out of line much 
more than raising it with a jack, and makes it more 
difficult to put back into place, often loosening the 
spikes where the ballast is heavy, and the track is laid 
with soft ties. 

In order to avoid accidents when track is being 
raised, the track jack should be set on the outside of 



310 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



the rail. In this position the pilot of an engine, if it 
should strike the jack, will knock it clear of the 
rails. But there is no necessity of using a track jack 
immediately ahead of the passage of trains, or when 




Fig. 73. Pony Car 



they are due at that point, and the men can be em- 
ployed at other work for the time. Track jacks placed 
inside the rails which could not be removed in time, 
have caused the derailment of numerous trains. Al- 



USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 311 

ways properly protect yourself with flags when using a 
jack 

Rail benders and jim crow. Almost every section 
has more or less kinky rails, and with these tools the 
joints can be straightened where they are crowded out 
too much. First, pull the spikes and plug the holes 




Fig. 74. Jim Crow Rail Benders 

where the kinks occur, then use the rail bender or jim 
crow and the track will present a much better appear- 
ance. These are also very handy in cutting rails. 
Mark the rail with chisel, put on the ''bender" and 
break it. 

Ratchet bits. When drilling holes the bits should 
not be crowded too hard, as they are generally highly 
tempered and are likely to break at the point. See 
that the bit is in the ratchet straight and fits snug. 

Ratchet drills. Keep them as free from grit and 
dirt as possible. When placing them for drilling a 
hole, be sure to set them straight, so that there will be 
no crooked or misplaced hole. 

Standard track drills have supplanted the use of 
the ordinary ratchet drills to a great extent now and 
there are numerous styles on the market. 



312 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



Striking hammer. Every section should have one 
of these. Twelve pounds is about the right weight, 
and the handle should be a little shorter than for a 
spike hammer. Always use the striking hammer for 
striking the chisel; a spike hammer should never be 
used for this. 

Sight boards and spike pullers. Every foreman 
should have some kind of sight board or blocks to use 




Fig. 75. Ratchet Drill 



when taking out long sags. Another tool which is 
very handy is a short spike puller for pulling spikes 
where the claw bar cannot be used. In lieu of some- 
thing better, a short pinch bar, such as engineers or 
car repairers use with their jacks, can be used to ad- 
vantage. Bend them a little more at the heel and they 
will start spikes fairly well. However, the spike 



USE AND CARE OP TRACK TOOLS 313 

pullers offered by manufacturers are far better and 
handier. 

Oil for wooden handles. All wooden tool handles 
should be well oiled before being used; it prevents sea- 




Fig. 76. Standard Track Drill 

son checking to a great extent and causes them to wear 
smoother. 
Importance of having tools ready for use. One of 

the most important things in railway service is time. 



314 THE TRACICMAN'S HELPER 

Time represents so mucli capital invested by the com- 
pany, and to make this investment pay dividends you 
must know how to use and care for the tools you have. 
Make a practice of handling tools to the best advan- 
tage, so that in case of emergency you may be pre- 
pared for anything that turns up. Think for a mo- 
ment of the loss and inconvenience that is caused if 
one of the main lines of one of our great railway 
systems is blocked for a few hours. In case of a wreck 
or washout, or any other accident that may happen to a 
railroad, and a big force is called out to repair it you 
can make yourself of valuable service by knowing 
how, when and where to use tools, and have them dis- 
tributed so that you do not have too many at one place 
and too few at another. Have everything arranged 
so that the most work may be accomplished in the 
least possible time. 



XX 

TIE PLATES 

Saving in tie renewals. It has been found that 
when the ordinary soft wood ties, such as white pine, 
cedar, red wood, chestnut, tamarack, and cypress, are 
placed in track where traffic is heavy, the fiber of the 
wood will be crushed, abraded and destroyed by the 
wave motion of the rail, long before they would have 
to be removed on account of natural decay, as de- 
scribed in Chapter IX. 

The natural life of the soft woods, when used as 
ties, averages ten or twelve years ; but they have been 
known to be destroyed in six months under peculiarly 
severe conditions, and under ordinary conditions 
within a period of from two to four years. Hence, the 
railroads of America have not used soft wood ties, 
except under the lightest traffic, until the tie plate 
came and proved its tie preserving qualities. Since 
then it has been demonstrated through practical ex- 
perience that by the use of a properly constructed tie 
plate the utility of these soft ties may be extended to 
their full natural life of twelve years or so, and that, 
when they are treated with a wood preservative and 
placed in track with tie plates, they will probably last 
much longer. From this it will be seen that tie re- 
newals on roads using tie plates on soft ties will be 
much less than the requirements where no tie plates 
are used. 

The density and compactness of the wood in oak 
and yellow pine ties is sufficient to withstand the de- 

315 



316 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



structive action of the rail on straight track for a 
period often equal to their natural life. On curves of 
over three degrees, it has been found necessary to use 
tie plates to preserve the hard wood ties to the limit of 
their natural life. 

Avoid adzing in maintenance. The load upon the 
rail due to the wheels traveling over it is both vertical 
and lateral, according to the surface of the track, mak- 




Fig. 77. Various Types of Tie Plates. 

(1) The Goldie Claw Tie Plate 

(2) The Harriman Type 

(3) Dilworth Special Shoulder-Flange Plate 

(4) Lackawanna Hook Shoulder Plate with Screw Spike 

(5) Newhall Plate 



ing the strain greatest on its outer edge, and causing 
the outer rail flange to cut down into the fiber of the 
wood more quickly than the inner. 

When the rail assumes this canted position the gage 
is widened; this increases the lateral sway of trains 
which requires that track men draw the spikes, adze 
the tie beneath the rail to a level surface and then re- 



TIE PLATES 317 

spike. This adzing requires the tie to be tamped and 
raised by an amount equal to the depth of adzing, all 
of which can be saved by the use of a tie plate. 

Types of tie plates. Some of these are illustrated 
in Fig. 77. The main dimensions of the Goldie Claw 
Tie Plate are as follows : — 

Shoulder 14 ^nd % inch 

Length 7, lYz^ §> 81/2 and 9 inches 

Width 5 inches and up 

Thickness . . %6 inch and up 

Those of the Harriman type : — 

Shoulder 14 and % inch 

Length . 7%, 8, Sy^ and ^% inches 

Width 6 inches and up 

Thickness % to 1^ inch 

The Dilworth special high shoulder type for use 
with A. R. A. rail, where two spikes are used on out- 
side of rail : 

Shoulder i/4 inch 

Length 8, Si/g and 9 inches 

Width 5 and 6 inches 

Thickness % inch and up 

This type of plate can be furnished without the de- 
pressions in the top. 

The Lackawanna Hook Shoulder type of plate as 
illustrated measures 11%" x 1" x %" ; weight seven- 
teen (17) pounds, for one hundred and one (101) 
pound rail with 5%" width base, flat rail base seat. 
Central line of plate is ex-central to rail. Forty-eight 
per cent. (48%) of plate bearing on inside and fifty- 
two per cent. (52%) on outer side of central line of 
rail. Holes punched for four (4) holding (standard 
screw) spikes, and two (2) guard (common) spikes. 

Fig. 77 shows a type of plate with screw spike. 

Another type is the "Erac" combined rail anchor 



318 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

and tie plate (Fig. 78). This combination consists 
of:— 

1st. A rolled steel double shouldered tie-plate. 2nd, 
A round corrugated steel pin working on an angular 
plane. (A) Section of rail. (B) Tie-plate. (C) 
Shoulder with obtuse angle on inner surface. (D) A 
round, corrugated steel pin. 




Fig. 78. Tlie "Erac" Combined Rail Anchor and Tie Plate 

The pin moves in angle in the direction of the creep- 
ing, expansion or contraction. The greater the tend- 
ency to creep the more firmly the pin locks. 

The **Lundie" plate, of still another type, is shown 
in Fig. 79. An inspection of test rails in the main 
track of a trunk line road indicated the effect secured 
by the use of this plate and was described in the Ry. 
Age Gazette as follows: 

''New 100-lb. A. R. A. type A rails were laid on 
parallel tracks on a 5-deg., 40-min. curve carrying a 
heavy freight traffic one year before the inspection re- 
ferred to. The Lundie tie plates were placed under 



TIE PLATES 



319 



the rails in one track while ordinary flat plates were 
used in the other track. The superelevation of the 
high rail was standard. The usual wear of the rail 
head was found on the track laid with flat plates as 
indicated in the accompanying drawing reproduced 
from measurements made of the rail head at the time 
of inspection, while the rails laid on the canted plates 




■2g-^-^ 



Qf 






J 




»H-/i— H 



Fiff. 79. Details of a Lundie Tie Plate 



show a slight wear uniform over the surface of the 
head. These plates are also in use in about 20 other 
installations in which it is said that similar results are 
being secured. 

''This tie plate is designed to support the rail at 
an angle of 1 in 20 with the horizontal, equivalent to 
the angle of coning on car wheels so that the surface of 
contact between the wheel and the rail and the rail and 
the tie plate will be perpendicular to the direction of 



320 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



application of the wheel load. In addition, the under- 
side of the plate is given a bearing on the tie, a large 
part of which is perpendicular to this stress by a series 
of stepped surfaces, each of which has an angle of 1 in 
20 with the horizontal. The advantages claimed for 
this method of support in addition to the reduction in 
wear on the rail head are a decreased tendency of the 
rails to spread, a lessening of the internal stresses in 
the rail due to loading the head centrally and a reduc- 
tion in wear on car wheels equivalent to that on the 
rail head. The plate is cambered on a lO-ft. radius 
parallel with the axis of the rail so that it does not 
present a sharp edge under the base of the rail when 




FLAT TIE PLATES 



LUNDIE TIE PLATES 



Fig. 80. Cross Sections of Rails in Adjacent Tracks after 
One Year's Service on Flat and Lundie Tie Plates, Re- 
spectively, Showing Difference in Wear on tlie Heads. 

the wheel load passes over it. It is claimed that this 
feature gives the added advantages of an easy riding 
track in that the rail adjusts its bearing on the plate, 
and an absence of rattling owing to the fact that the 
plate does not tilt under approaching or receding 
loads. The plate is said to perform its functions 
equally well on hard and soft ties, as on a hard surface 
which does not compact readily the camber will allow 
complete resilience under load, the flattening of the 
plate producing stresses within the elastic limit of the 
metal. ' ' 

Surface. Where no plates are used the old ties 
must be adzed for several years before they are to be 
taken out of the track to maintain the rail level, and 



TIE PLATES 321 

when so adzed they must be raised to restore the sur- 
face, hence the roadbed beneath them is disturbed and 
requires filling in and tamping under the adzed ties, 
leaving such portions of the roadbed soft and yield- 
ing, while other parts are thoroughly compact and 
rigid, the result being a bad riding track. 

When all ties are protected with tie plates these 
conditions do not occur, the tie plate preventing the 
cutting of the tie, and consequently the necessity for 
adzing and retamping, leaving the roadbed uniform, 
and making a smooth riding track. Thus a great sav- 
ing in track labor is accomplished. 

Gage. The lateral force tending to throw the rail 
to a wider gage is resisted by the outer spike only, 
which in its turn is supported by the fiber of the wood 
behind it; but when a tie plate with shoulder is used 
the widening of gage can then take place only if both 
spikes together with the plate move laterally, which is 
almost impossible. Hence we have the full resistance 
of both spikes, plus that offered by the plate itself, to 
prevent widening of gage, giving increased safety in 
operation. 

Holding rail vertical. Of the two forces acting on 
the head of the rail, the vertical one is by far the 
greater. With the use of rail braces these two forces 
are transmitted to the tie as follows: The small 
lateral force is transmitted directly to the rail brace 
and through it and the spikes holding it to the ties, 
but the much greater vertical force is transmitted to 
the tie directly at a point near the edge of the outer 
rail flange, and this force the rail brace is not designed 
to, and does not resist, with the result that the tie is 
cut out and the rail brace is canted. By the use of 
the tie plate the much greater vertical force is re- 
sisted by the plate and is distributed over the tie. 
The much smaller lateral force is resisted by the inner 
and one or two of the outer spikes, according to the 



322 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



necessity of the case. This fact has become so well 
established that after a trial of tie plates practically 
all railroads in the United States having the sharpest 
curves and heaviest grades have abandoned the use 
of rail braces and adopted tie plates in their stead. 
The use of the tie plate on curves insures a normal 
position of the rail, prevents the rail from rolling, 
which, in turn, insures a true gage. 

Necessary features of a good tie plate. A good tie 
plate must become part of the tie into which it is 
bedded, in order to avoid any movement between 
plate and tie. This may be accomplished by longitudi- 
nal flanges on the plate entering the tie parallel with 
its fibers, and compressing 'them without injuring 
them, the reactionary pressure of the fibers upon the 






Left Hand 
Punching 

Fig. 81. 



Right Hand Right and Left Hand 

Punching Punching 

Methods of Punching Tie Plates 



flanges of the plate making the latter practically a 
part of the tie. A well-known illustration of this fact 
is that when an axe is driven into a piece of timber 
parallel with the grain of the wood, it remains firmly 
wedged in, while if cut across the grain it has no grip 
at all, and is easily worked loose. 

A disadvantage of the use of flanges is that they 
force the fibers of the wood apart and leave spaces into 
which water may enter and start decay. This diffl- 



TIE PLATES 323 

culty is responsible for the abandonment by some 
roads of this type of plate. 

A good tie plate must have sufficient strength to dis- 
tribute the load from the rail to the outer ends of the 
plate without bending, for if this is not the case the 
plate buckles, loosens from the tie and destroys the 
fibre of the tie rapidly. A point to be guarded against 
is the using of too much metal in the plate; if this 
occurs it will work itself loose from the tie by its own 
inertia and destroy the wood fibres. The flanges used 
on some plates act as girders and distribute the load 
on the rail to the extreme end of the plate in a much 
more economical manner than if the plate is increased 
in thickness. 

There must also be provision made for sand to es- 
cape from the top of the plate ; otherwise the grit get- 
ting between rail and plate will gradually destroy 
both rail and plate ; but with the proper means of es- 
cape, such as channels or ducts, it has been found by 
experience that it has but little effect upon the plate. 

Information required when ordering tie plates: 
Weight and section of rail. Width of rail base, Style 
of plate, Length of plate. Width of plate. Thickness of 
plate, Height of shoulder. Size of spikes to be used. 
Number of holes required — if three holes, give dis- 
tance between centers of inside holes. State whether 
joint or intermediate plates are wanted. On joint 
plates the following information is also required: 
Stagger of holes in angle bars. What is the width out 
to out of angle bars? Should shoulder of joint plates 
abut against rail or against angle bar? If against 
rail, send drawing showing clearance between angle 
(or splice) bar and rail. 



XXI 

WRECKING 

The first duty of a track foreman, when he receives 
notice that there has been an accident and he is 
wanted, is to collect his men and take his hand car 
and all his portable tools, even those which he thinks 
he is not likely to use. He should not go short of 
tools expecting that other foremen will have enough. 
The other foremen may think the same thing of him 
and valuable time will be lost. 

On the ground. When the foreman arrives at the 
scene of accident, he should proceed immediately to do 
whatever work, in his judgment, would contribute 
most to putting the track in a passable condition for 
trains, notwithstanding the absence of his superior 
officer, who may not be able to reach the wreck for sev- 
eral hours. If the track is torn up, and the cars do 
not interfere, put in ties enough to carry a train safely 
over where you can. If the rails are bent out of shape 
secure some from near by if possible. If this cannot 
be done, get as many as possible of the damaged rails 
to their proper shape, and spike down in the track. 

If a small bridge or culvert has given way, crib it 
with ties until you can cross it with track. 

To square a car truck. If one or both trucks be- 
neath a car should leave the track at once and turn 
across it, as is often the case, uncouple from the car 
and hitch a switch rope to the corner of the truck and 
to the draw head of the car next to the one which is off 

324 



WRECKING 325 

the track. Then pull the truck into a position parallel 
to the track, after which it can be put on the rails 
with the wrecking frogs. 

If the car should be loaded very heavily, it may be 
advisable to raise the end with jacks before squaring 
the truck. 

Cars off on ties. When cars have got off the track, 
and are still on the ties, it is best to put blocks or ties 
between those in the track to keep the wheels from 
sinking between the ties. By doing this at once, be- 
fore attempting to put the cars back on the track, con- 
siderable time and labor will generally be saved. 

Oil the rail. If an engine or car mounts the outside 
rail of a sharp curve, and persists in running off the 
track, oil the rails thoroughly where the most trouble 
is experienced. This will generally allow the engine 
or car to go around the curve without leaving the 
track. 

Very rusty rails on a curve track which has not been 
used for some time often cause the wheels to mount 
the outside rail, the surface not being smooth enough 
to allow the wheels to slide. 

Car trucks in the ditch. When the car trucks are 
thrown some distance from the track in a wreck, the 
quickest method of putting them on the track again> 
if you have no derrick car, is to take bars and turn 
them almost parallel to the track, but with one end a 
little nearer to the track. Hitch a rope to this end of 
the truck, and to the engine, or the nearest car which 
is coupled to the engine, and the truck will pull onto 
the track easily, if there is nothing to obstruct its 
passage. 

To turn a car truck on soft ground. When car 
trucks are sunk in soft ground at a wreck, and there 
is no derrick car or other lifting apparatus at hand, 
a good way to handle them is to place a tie cross-ways 
in the ground, about four or five feet from the truck ; 



326 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

then place two more long ties or timbers, with their 
centers resting across the first tie, and their ends in 
front of the truck wheels. The truck can then be 
pushed up on top of the long ties as if on a track. 
"When it is centered over the bottom tie, the truck can 
be easily turned to run in any direction. 

To put a wrecked gravel plow back on cars. 
Trackmen in charge of a ballasting outfit, if they are 
new at the business, are often at a loss to know the 
quickest way to put a plow back on the cars if it should 
accidentally be pulled off. The best way in such a 
case is to roll the plow or pull it with the engine and 
cable into the same position on the track that it would 
occupy on the cars; then raise up the point of the 
plow until you can back the end of a car under it, 
hook the end of the cable to the plow, block the car 
wheels and pull the plow upon the car with the engine. 

Sliding a car on a tie. If the rear truck of any kind 
of a car should by accident be derailed, broken, or 
rendered useless, the car can be taken to the next sta- 
tion by uncoupling it from the cars behind it. Re- 
move the disabled truck from the track ; then take the 
caboose jacks and raise the body of the car enough to 
slip a tie under it across the track rails; let the car 
down upon the tie, and by running carefully the car 
can be hauled to the station or side track, sliding on 
the tie. 

If sliding the disabled car on a tie is not practicable 
it is often a good plan to block up both ends of the car 
on ties and move the forward truck under the other 
end of the car and haul it to the station with one end 
resting on the coupling; or substitute another truck 
for the damaged one, that being the most convenient 
way in some cases. 

Loaded wrecked cars. It is always best, when a 
wrecked car is loaded, to remove the load, or transfer 
it to another car on the good track. Outfits starting to 



WRECKING 327 

go to a wreck should provide themselves with all tools 
and appliances necessary for this purpose. 

Broken center pins. Car-truck center pins, which 
have been twisted or broken in a wreck, may be re- 
moved by going inside the car and cutting away with 
a hammer and cold chisel the iron ring which forms 
the head and shoulder of the pin. The pin may then 
be driven down through the bottom of the car. 

There should always be a man on hand at a wreck 
to look after such jobs and promptly remove all broken 
brake-beams, hanging irons, etc., in order not to delay 
the work after the cars are picked up, or are ready to 
be put upon the track. 

Pulling on a chain or rope. When pulling on a 
chain or rope with a locomotive at a wreck, care should 
be taken not to have too much slack, as chains break 
easily when jerked. The same is true of switch ropes, 
but when they are new or not much worn, they will 
stand a greater slack strain than a chain will. Wire 
cables are preferable to either a chain or a rope for 
pulling and they will stand a much greater slack 
strain if not allowed to become twisted out of shape. 

There is always danger of chains or switch ropes 
breaking when engines are pulling on them at a wreck, 
and those working near should not be allowed to stand 
too close to them. 

A ' ' dead man " is a device sometimes used to anchor 
a guy or stay rope, where wrecking cars, engines or 
derricks have to do very heavy hoisting or pulling. It 
is made by digging a trench five or six feet deep, at a 
proper distance from the track and parallel to it. A 
narrow cross trench is then dug, slanting upward from 
the bottom and middle of the first trench to the sur- 
face of the ground. A good track tie or heavy timber 
is then buried in the first trench and the rope is passed 
down through the cross trench and secured to the 
timber. 



328 THE TRACIvMAN'S HELPER 

Wrecked engines. The first thing to do with a 
wrecked engine, if the frame is good, is to take jacks 
and put the engine in an upright position, such as it 
would occupy if standing on the main track. It may 
then be blocked up and raised sufficiently to place 
under it rails and ties, forming a temporary track. 
The main track should then be cut at a rail joint, and 
lined out in an easy curve until the ends of the rails 
are in line with the temporary track. The tracks 
should then be connected and the engine pulled upon 
the main track. If the engine stands at such an angle 
as to require a very sharp curve in the track over 
which it is pulled, put plenty of oil on the track rails, 
and elevate the outside rail of the curve. 

How to work at a wreck. The first thing to do at 
any wreck of importance, where cars block the main 
track, is to use the first locomotive which can be put 
into service, and with switch ropes pull clear of the 
tracks all cars, trucks, or other wreckage which can- 
not be readily put back on the track with the facilities 
at hand. Proper care should be taken, in doing this 
part of the work, not to injure freight in the cars. 
When necessary, remove it from the wrecked cars to a 
place of safety, and pull the cars and trucks into a 
position alongside the track, where it will be handy 
for the wrecking car to pick them up after it ar- 
rives. 

The moment the track is clear of wreckage, the 
track force should go to work and repair it, and 
quickly put it in good condition for trains. 

Track foremen should not allow their men to be- 
come confused or mixed up with other gangs of men 
who are present at a wreck,, except when it is neces- 
sary for more than one gang of men to work together ; 
even then the foreman should keep his own men as 
much together as possible, in order always to be able 



WRECKING 329 

to control their actions and work them to the best 
advantage. 

No matter what part of the work at a wreck a fore- 
man is called upon to do, he should act promptly, and 
work with a will to get the wreck cleared up and the 
track ready for the passage of trains with as little 
delay as possible. 



XXII 

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 

Discharges. Upon the day on which a man is dis- 
charged the foreman should make out his time in full 
on the time book, and write opposite his name on the 
time book, "discharged," or the letters C. G., which 
means ' ' certificate of time given. ' ' 

The foreman should always fill out a discharge 
check, using the regular blank form for that purpose. 
The man's name should be written in full on the dis- 
charge check and spelled in the same way as on the 
time book. His occupation, number of days worked, 
and amount due him should also correspond with the 
same on the time book. The discharge check should 
be signed by the foreman and forwarded to the proper 
officer for approval. A board bill should also accom- 
pany the discharge check whenever there is any de- 
duction to be made from a man's wages for that pur- 
pose. 

Foremen should not discharge any of their men 
without sufficient cause, except when they have re- 
ceived an order to reduce their forces; nor should a 
foreman keep any more men than the regular force 
allowed him without orders from his superior officer. 

Ride over your section on the engine. Section 
foremen should take an occasional ride over their sec- 
tions either on the engine or on the back platform of 
the rear coach or caboose of a train ; and while riding 
over the track they should not make a pleasure trip of 
it merely, but should watch closely how the cars ride, 

330 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 331 

note all the worst places in their sections and what 
causes these places to altect the smooth running of 
the train. A train running at the speed of 45 miles 
per hour does not ride as smoothly as one traveling 20 
miles per hour on the same track, because the cars 
which travel slowly have more time to get righted after 
the wheels meet with a place out of line, level, gage 
or surface, while the fast train may meet and pass 
several of these slight obstructions within a second 
of time, thus having no time to regain its balance. 
When a train runs along smoothly for a distance and 
suddenly swings to one side, if it be on a straight 
track, the place is either low on that side, or is badly 
out of line or gage. If the train be on a curve, and 
the car swing heavily toward the higher rail, there is 
not enough elevation in the curve at that point. If 
the car swing toward the inside rail of the curve, 
there is too much elevation of the outer rail at that 
place for the speed being traveled. A low joint on 
the inside rail will cause the train to swing to that 
side, and the striking of the wheel flange against joints 
that are hooked in out of line on the outer rail will 
also throw the car toward the inner rail. A foreman 
can soon become expert in distinguishing the slight 
difference in the motion of the car as it swings to 
either side of the track, and tell the cause by ex- 
amining the bad places in the track soon after riding 
over it on the train. 

Accidents. All personal injuries to men working 
in track service should be reported on the proper 
blank form by the foreman to his superior, and all 
accidents resulting in damage to the railroad com- 
pany's property should also be promptly reported. 
When there are no suitable blank forms a written re- 
port should be made, and signed by witnesses. 

Go over the track. Section foremen should always, 
in very stormy weather, go over their sections and ex- 



332 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

amine all culverts, bridges and other places liable to 
Vv'ash, and report condition of track to roadmaster. 
In going over section, they should be very thorough in 
their examination of everything in their charge. See 
that the telegraph lines are in good order: if they are 
not, repair them when you can, and report any defects 
that may need the service of the telegraph line re- 
pairer. 

Foremen should also notice the condition of all 
snow or right of way fences, and repair all breaks in 
them as soon as found. Gates left open by farmers 
should be closed and secured. Unreliable men, or 
those ignorant of their duties, should never be de- 
tailed to patrol the track. 

Raise up wires. When telegraph wires are found 
down after a storm, foremen should hang them high 
enough on the poles to insure their working properly 
and to prevent cattle or teams crossing the track from 
running against them. 

Extremes of temperature. Whenever the tempera- 
ture changes suddenly there is always danger, whether 
the changes be due to extreme heat or extreme cold. 
Section foremen should be very particular to go over 
and examine all the track on their sections to discover 
places where track has been kinked and thrown out 
of line by the heat, or splices broken and rails pulled 
apart by the extreme cold. Foremen should remem- 
ber that accidents of the kind mentioned are liable to 
happen at any point on the road, even where the rails 
seem to have the proper allowance for expansion, be- 
cause the change of temperature may come on quickly. 
Places where the ballast is light, or where the track is 
not filled in between the ties, are the most likely to be 
affected. 

Surface bent rails. In wet cuts, or other low places, 
the track often becomes very rough, and the ties sink 
into the mud in places. The rails then, if of light 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 333 

weight, become more or less surface bent before the 
track can be raised up, or repaired properly. If the 
surface bent rails cannot be replaced by good ones 
before the track is ballasted up they are apt to cause 
the foreman much trouble in trying to make them 
remain in true surface, if he does not understand how 
to straighten them. This can best be done by the 
following method : If, for instance, the rail bows up 
at the quarter or the center, make the ties solid at 
each end of the bent place on some warm day, then 
remove enough material from under the ties, where 
the rail is bent, so that the weight of an engine pass- 
ing slowly over the rail will bend the bowed place, 
just as much below level, as it is then above. After a 
train has passed you will generally find that the rail 
has resumed its proper shape. If the bend in the rail 
is downward, hang the center of the bent place upon 
one or more solid ties, according to the length of the 
bend, and allow the balance of the track under the rail 
to remain as it was. Joints which have been allowed 
to remain low for some time often cause the rail to be 
come surface bent in the short quarter, and they are 
very difficult to keep up ever after unless the kink is 
taken out of the rail. 

A loose joint tie in gravel or sand ballast will soon 
pump out enough gravel to cause the rail to bend a 
short distance from the end, unless it is taken care of 
at once. When the foreman wishes to straighten any 
surface bent rails, he should always signal the first 
train, and have it run slowly, because there is danger 
of the rails breaking where they are not fully sup- 
ported. Surface bent rails which are so bad that 
they cannot be straightened while in the track may be 
taken out and fixed with the curving hook and lever. 

Low joints. "When picking up low joints in gravel 
or stone ballasted track, particularly where the de- 
pressions are only slight, if sufficient force is al- 



334 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

lowed track foremen should always use tamping bars, 
or tamping picks, according to the nature of the 
ballast, to tamp up the track ties to the proper sur- 
face level. 

Many things other than a weak foundation make 
low joints in track. Loose bolts in the joint fasten- 
ings make low joints because they allow them to bend 
down under the weight of the engine and cars. Bad 
gage and line make low joints because the cars, when 
trains run fast, are thrown heavily from one side 
of the track to the opposite, and the joint, being the 
weakest point, is affected most. Wide spaces between 
the ends of the track rail also make low joints, and 
assist the car wheels to batter the ends of the rails. 

When rails are laid on soft wood ties, or when the 
ties have commenced to decay, you will generally find 
that a low joint is wide in the gage between the rails. 

The conviction gains ground daily that low joints 
are due in a great measure to the faulty construction 
of the ordinary angle bar joints, and this theory is 
borne out by the fact that roads using improved joint 
fastenings have very little trouble from this cause. 

Examining track. When the track rails on a sec- 
tion become badly worn and need to be repaired 
often, or when the ground is frozen solid in winter, 
section foremen should go over their sections daily 
and examine the track thoroughly for broken or 
cracked rails, removing such rails and replacing them 
with good ones. 

It is the duty of foremen never to deviate from 
this rule unless a regular track walker is employed 
for this purpose, or when they have orders to the 
contrary. 

The section foreman is responsible for the condi- 
tion of the track in his charge, and he should do 
everything in his power to contribute to the safety of 
passengers and trains passing over it. Report all 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 335 

broken rails to the roadmaster as soon as found, giv- 
ing brand, weight, age, etc. 

Scarcity of repair rails. When repair rails are 
scarce, and a foreman cannot procure enough to ex- 
change for all the damaged rails in his main track, 
he can with only a couple of extra rails keep his track 
perfectly safe by commencing in time to bring into 
station the worst rails on the main track. 

Take the two extra rails out on the section, if good 
and of the proper length, substitute them for two 
battered rails, bring the two battered rails into the 
station and put them in track in the yard or some- 
where near the station, in place of two more good 
rails. Take these out on section as before, and sub- 
stitute for battered rails. In this way a foreman may 
exchange four or five carloads of rails, or about one 
mile of steel, until he receives a supply of repair rails. 

Battered rails are safer within one-half mile of a 
station at the track foreman's headquarters, than 
out on his section, because trains run more slowly 
there. Battered rails are less likely to break near 
the station. They are also much more easily watched, 
and taken care of. When repair rails are received 
the battered rails can all be removed at once. In 
order to be on the safe side, the foreman should place 
his order for repair rails in time to have them on hand 
when needed and thus avoid makeshifts. 

Changing battered rails. The best method for 
changing rails which have become unfit for use in 
the main track, when the rails furnished for repair 
are of a different length from those in the main track, 
is as follows : 

Put in track near the station a string of repair 
rails, and take out rails of a proper length to change 
the battered ones out on the section. In order to 
do this right and save unnecessary expense and labor 
always try to have the number of repair rails you 



336 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

put in track replace a greater or less number of rails 
of a different length without any cutting. If you 
have not the right number of rails without cutting 
one, use a number of rails that will give the least 
waste. 

Example : 

10 33-foot rails equal 330 feet. 

11 30-foot rails equal 330 feet. 

Or: 

7 30-foot rails equal 210 feet. 

8 26-foot rails equal 208 feet. 

As will be seen in the above example, there are 
only two feet to be cut from the last 30-foot rail of 
the 7 to replace 8 26-foot rails, and for this waste a 
foreman should select (if he has it) a rail battered 
on the end, that will give the required 28 feet of 
good rail. 

Extra work. It is customary on most railroads to 
call upon the trackmen to do extra work occasionally, 
such as assisting the telegraph line repairer, the 
bridge carpenters, pump repairers, ets., whenever 
these gangs cannot well perform their work alone, or 
when a sufficient force of men cannot be procured. 

Track foremen should not assist with their men at 
any kind of extra work without orders from above. 
When such orders are received the track foreman 
should give only the amount of help required, using 
all of his men or only part, as may be necessary. 
Never employ all of your force when fewer men could 
do the work as well, unless your orders require it. 
Charge accurately on the time sheet, and to the 
department to which it belongs, all extra work per- 
formed by your men during the month. Whenever 
you do any extra work, for which there is no printed 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 337 

heading on the distribution sheet, state in writing in 
the column where you put the time, what the labor 
was for. 

Train accidents. In case of accident to a train, 
the section foreman who is called should take his 
men and tools and go to the place, no matter whether 
it is on his section or not, giving all the assistance 
possible. Section foremen should not wait for orders 
to do any extra work which they know to be abso- 
lutely necessary, but should do the work at once, and 
remain out with their men until everything is safe. 
If a foreman is notified by trainmen or others of 
something wrong on a section adjoining his own, such 
as a broken rail, a fire along the right of way, or the 
telegraph wires broken or down, he should make all 
possible speed to get to the place of danger without 
questioning his right to go, because it may not be 
possible to notify the proper authority and any de- 
lay may cause the company considerable loss. 

At wrecks. Whenever there is a wreck on the road, 
the foreman on whose section the accident happens 
should keep an accurate account of the labor and 
material expended in repairing the damage done to 
the track. This account, together with the one of 
the damage done to rails, ties, spikes, bolts, or to the 
roadbed, should be put in the form of a report, and 
properly sent in immediately after the track is re- 
paired. Time of men working at a wreck should be 
charged to that account on the time sheet. 

Water stations. At all the water stations the sec- 
tion foreman should note the amount of water in 
tanks when passing, and where wind engines do the 
pumping they should be oiled often, and any defects 
in them or the pumps should be repaired, if possible, 
or reported by telegraph. Section foremen and their 
men should pump water into the tanks whenever the 
wind engine fails to supply enough for trains. 



338 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

When it is necessary to pump by hand, foremen 
should commence to pump before there is any dan- 
ger of the supply in the tank being exhausted. 
Where steam pumps are to furnish the water for 
trains, section foremen should assist the man in 
charge to do any necessary repairing which he can- 
not do alone. 

Trespassers. Foremen should see that no person 
is allowed to erect dwellings, stables or other build- 
ings within the limits of the railroad company's right 
of way, or in any other manner trespass on the com- 
pany's property, without permission from their su- 
periors. 

Protect fences. When burning grass, weeds or 
other material along the right of way, foremen should 
be very careful to protect the fence from fire. Never 
go away from a place where you have been burning 
rubbish leaving any fire behind you, no matter how 
small the fire, or how harmless it may appear. It 
is always dangerous until extinguished. If part of 
a fence should accidentally be burned, or destroyed 
from any cause, the damage should be reported at 
once, giving a correct list of the property destroyed 
and location of same, so that material to repair the 
damage can be sent there promptly. 

Rails of different heights. All rails of different 
heights, where they meet at a joint, should be con- 
nected with a step splice if a proper form of step 
joint is not used, and an iron shim should be put 
under the base of the low rail to give an equal bear- 
ing with the high rail. The iron shim should have 
slots punched in its sides so that spikes can be driven 
to keep it secured in place. Instead of the splice it 
is better to use a proper form of improved compromise 
joint. 

Switch stands. All switch stand targets should 
show green, when locked on the main track, also on 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 339 

all tracks running; parallel to the main track, when 
connected iat both ends. The switch target should 
show the red signal for an open switch when thrown 
for a spur track, and the switch should be thrown 
back to position on the through track, and kept 
locked, except when the spur track is in use. 

Absence from duty. Track foremen should never 
be absent from duty, unless by permission, except in 
case of sickness or from some other unavoidable cause, 
in which case the roadmaster or superior should be 
notified immediately. 

Emergency rails. It is good policy to have repair 
rails placed at convenient distances, one or two miles 
apart, along the section where they can be easily 
reached. These rails can be used in case of emergency 
to replace a broken rail in the track, and the splices 
will also be handy to replace broken ones, without the 
necessity of going perhaps several miles through snow- 
drifts back to the station for the material wanted. To 
prevent the rails or splices from being covered with 
snow, they should be secured on posts set with their 
tops two or three feet above the surface of the ground. 

The condition of the rails as to wear should decide 
the number of emergency rails to be distributed along 
the track. Where the rails in the track are badly 
worn and broken rails are common the number of 
emergency rails should be greater than where the 
track is newly laid and the rails not much worn. 

Working new men. If it is necessary to work new 
men on your section, who have never worked on track 
before, do not lose your patience if they are a little 
awkward in doing the work. If you can do so, pair 
these men with older hands. Take a little trouble 
to show them how you want the work done, in a man- 
ner that will give them confidence, and in most cases 
you will accomplish more good than by using the 
blow-and-bluster method so common with some fore- 



340 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

men. Remember that you needed instructions once 
yourself. 

Get acquainted with your section. Every section 
foreman, as soon as he has been appointed to take 
charge of a section, should make himself thoroughly 
acquainted with every part of the piece of road in 
his charge. Get the numbers of all the bridges and 
culverts on your section, and their distances from 
the station north, south, east or west. Get the brand 
of iron or steel, and if it is of different makes get 
the amount of each, and find when it was laid, also 
the length and kind of rails in your side tracks, num- 
ber of panels of snow fence on your section, height 
of bridges from the ground, number of public cross- 
ings, signs, etc. Keep this account where it will be 
handy to refer to at any time, and keep it corrected 
from time to time. By doing this you will be able 
to answer any questions asked by officials of the road 
about any part of your section, and in case of a wreck 
or washout you will be able to locate the place at a 
moment's notice, and give a close estimate of the kind 
and amount of material necessary for repairs, in case 
of damage to track. Keep the information in your 
pocket. Your head won't hold it all. 

Making reports. Find out the correct way of keep- 
ing your time and filling out any other reports that 
you have to send in and make them out as directed. 
You may have a printed form of some kind to fill out. 
Answer what is asked in the headings. 

Extra men. When you are about to have an extra 
force of men, larger than you have been accustomed 
to working, take a little time to plan how you will 
distribute the men to accomplish the most good. Or- 
ganization is the main factor in handling the work. 

Clear water passages. No vegetable matter, grass, 
etc., should ever be allowed to accumulate under 
bridges or near the mouths of culverts, or any other 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 341 

material that would be likely to catch fire easily, or 
stop the passage of water. 

Neat stations. Section foremen should keep the 
station grounds clean and neat, and all track material 
should be piled up in several lots. There should be 
no disorder; there should be a place for everything, 
and everything in its place. All of the station 
grounds not occupied by tracks or covered with ballast, 
should be allowed to grow up in tame grasses. Such 
plots should be kept nicely trimmed around the sides 
and ends, with a view to having them of a regular form, 
and they should be lined parallel with adjoining tracks. 
No rubbish of any kind should ever be allowed to ac- 
cumulate upon tracks, or on the ground close to build- 
ings. It should be taken away and dumped into places 
that need filling. Section foremen should not spend 
too much time working around the station, but do what 
is required there when other track work is not press- 
ing, or when the weather or extra jobs interfere and 
take up so much of the day that it would not pay to 
go out on the section. 

Look over the yard. Yard foremen should have a 
reliable man as trackwalker to examine all important 
switches daily. If his time will permit he should also 
look after and attend to keys in switch rods, to frog 
and guard rail bolts, and if the yards be small he may 
also remove cinders from the tracks and attend to 
switch lamps; but it is a mistake to put too much 
work on the trackwalker, as it has a tendency to make 
him hurry over the yard and not give it a careful in- 
spection. 

Bent splices. "When a foreman receives old steel 
rails for repairs he should always examine the splices, 
especially angle bar splices, and if they are bent in 
the center he should not use them again without 
straightening them. 

Lining disconnected track. Foremen when lining 



342 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

track that has been washed out, or that has been dis- 
connected at one end should never commence lining 
from the disconnected end. Always commence to line 
track from the end that is connected, and nearest to 
line, and work towards the end that is disconnected, 
and when you have moved it once, begin to line as 
before. 

Some foremen with large gangs of men spend sev- 
eral hours of valuable time at a washout, in a fruit- 
less attempt to bring into line the tail end of a piece 
of track, and when the men can not throw it, cut it 
into rail lengths and carry into place. This may be 
avoided if track has been lined in the way stated 
above. 

Ordering tools or material. Track foremen, when 
ordering tools or material for use on the track in their 
charge, should not make requisition for more than the 
amount necessary of either kind. A surplus of tools 
or track material on hand, which there is no prospect 
of putting in service soon, represents their value in 
cash lying idle or going to waste. 

Keep men's time correctly. It is a notable fact 
that the best track foremen keep the time of their men 
and other accounts correctly, and do everything, as 
the saying goes, "in ship shape," while the reverse 
can only be said of foremen who are careless or slov- 
enly. The want of an education is only an excuse, 
and a foreman, by devoting a little of his time eve- 
nings to study, can soon write a good hand, and learn 
enough of figures to do all that is required of him 
while in the position of track foreman. 

Duplicate time books. All track foremen should 
carry with them a duplicate time book, and note on 
the same day any loss of time, or time earned by any 
of the men working under them. Keep a journal of 
the work performed by them each day, always charg- 
ing the proper number of days' labor done by each 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 343 

of them at each separate kind of work. This record 
of time and work performed should be transferred at 
the end of each day to the regular time book and 
journal of work, which is sent to headquarters at the 
end of each month. 

By following above instructions, a foreman will 
avoid making any mistakes, and will also be able to 
refer back to the time of his men, the kind of work 
done, and date of same, whenever called upon for in- 
formation by his superior officers. 

Track material account. When foremen receive 
track material of any kind, and it is loaded on cars or 
unloaded from cars by them, they should check over 
everything carefully and count the pieces, number of 
rails, ties, etc. ; also note the brand or quality of the 
same, and take the number of the car. Keep this with 
your other accounts, no matter whether you have or- 
ders to do so or not, as you may be asked to give in- 
formation on the subject later on. 

Printed forms. Track foremen should read and 
thoroughly understand the printed instructions on all 
blank forms which the railroad company requires them 
to use, when making their reports. Many foremen 
are' too careless in this matter, often omitting to put 
down the answers to printed questions which it is al- 
most impossible for them to miss seeing when filling 
out the form. Occasionally a foreman will put on 
his work journal the number of ties received during 
the month, and at the same time fail to give the num- 
ber of ties used during the month, or the number 
on hand, while the latter questions are there on the 
journal, as well as the question, ''How many ties re- 
ceived?" Then the roadmaster must write him a let- 
ter a second time and tell him what he should do and 
wait for an answer. It is just likely that the fore- 
man spoken of above will be changing a rail in a side 
track, or doing some other kind of work, which could 



344 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

be put off or delayed without danger for a week or 
two, when at that time he should have been examin- 
ing: his track after a heavy storm. 

He has carried a time card in his pocket for months 
perhaps, and never informed himself that there was 
a rule on that time card which required himself and 
men to be out and examine the track on his section 
in stormy weather. Foremen of the kind mentioned 
do not hold a position long under any roadmaster, be- 
cause they are not reliable; they need to be watched 
too closely and instructed too often in their duties. 

Section foremen's reports. There is hardly a sin- 
gle railway company now in this country which does 
not furnish its foremen printed blanks for whatever 
reports they may be called upon to make. These 
blanks are generally made as simple as consistent with 
the nature of the report, and the foreman should 
study carefully the headings and printed instructions 
which will enable him to fill them out properly. It 
is most important that such statements are made at 
the proper time, that all entries are strictly correct 
and that they are made as concise as possible and in 
a legible manner. When such reports are completed 
they should be mailed to the proper officer. In re- 
gard to monthly statements of tools and materials re- 
ceived and used, foremen will find it greatly to their 
interest if they retain a copy of whatever they re- 
ported on hand the last of the month, so as to be able 
to fill the report for the succeeding month correctly. 
In fact, it is advisable that each foreman keep a little 
book wherein he can note down all items of interest 
occurring on his section pertaining to the operation 
of the road. Such memoranda have often proven to 
be of great value to railway companies; besides that, 
it enables foremen to make out duplicate reports in 
case the original has been lost or destroyed. Better 
still, keep a carbon copy of all reports sent in. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 345 

Shipping track tools. Track foremen, when ship- 
ping tools or sending them to the repair shop, should 
always be particular to secure them in a neat package, 
so that it would not be possible for any of them to 
become separated or lost while in transit. The name 
and address of the person to whom sent should be writ- 
ten plainly on the face of the shipping tag; on the 
back of the same tag the foreman should write his 
own name and address, together with a request that 
the tools be returned to him when repaired. 

A very convenient arrangement for securing tools 
together when shipping them, may be made by run- 
ning a piece of chain through the tools or around 
them, and locking with a spring key after passing one 
of the end links through one of the other links of the 
chain. The key should be flat and just wide enough 
to fit the links in the manner mentioned. Soft wire is 
superior to twine for securing tools or for tagging 
them. 

Distance to set out danger signals. Danger signals 
should be set out a distance of not less than three 
quarters of a mile in both directions from the point 
where the track is impassable for trains. This dis- 
tance can be measured by counting one hundred 
and twenty thirty-three-foot rail lengths, in the di- 
rection you are going to set out the signals ; or when 
the telegraph poles are one hundred and fifty feet 
apart, the signals may be set out twenty-six tele- 
graph poles distant each way from the point of dan- 
ger. 

When flagging at obscure places, or in the vicinity 
of descending grades, where it is difficult to stop a 
train, the distance to set signals must be increased and 
the telegraph operator at the next station should be 
informed, so that trains can be held until track is 
cleared and safe for their passage. The flagmen 
should remain out with the signals until the track is 



346 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

repaired. When the track has been repaired, and 
made safe for trains, the flags, torpedoes, or other 
signals should be removed immediately. Of course all 
flagging should he done under the rules prescribed hy 
the railroad company hy which employed. This re- 
mark also applies to all other work also. 

Always keep signals with you. A track foreman 
should always keep on his hand car, ready for instant 
use, a full supply of torpedoes, red flags, or red lan- 
terns, so that if any accident should render the track 
unsafe for the passage of trains, he would be prepared 
to protect them promptly. Flagmen sent out to pa- 
trol the track should not be allowed to proceed with- 
out having all the necessary signals to stop trains. 
The foreman should instruct them thoroughly in their 
duties, as he is responsible for them. 

The first duty of a track foreman when he finds 
a dangerous place in the track, no matter whether it is 
on his section or not, is to set out stop signals at once ; 
he should then go in the direction from which the 
next train is expected and report the trouble at the 
nearest telegraph office. 

Time cards and rules. A track foreman should 
keep well posted on the time of all regular trains pass- 
ing over his section. Read over all the rules on the 
time card every time a new card is issued on your 
road. 

Look out for signals. Foremen should always look 
for signals on all passing trains. Another section of 
the same train which has passed, or a special, may be 
following close behind. The track foreman and his 
men should be fully informed, and keep well posted as 
to the meaning of all signals displayed on passing 
trains. 

Replace signals. Trackmen finding danger signals 
along the track should leave them in the same position 
as found, and if the signals are injured so as to be 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 347 

unsafe, they should be replaced by good signals of 
the same kind, or a man should be left to guard the 
point. It is the duty of a track foreman, if he find 
danger signals, to go forward and ascertain their 
cause, and to give assistance with his men, if the train- 
men require their services. 

Injured signals. All sign signals placed along the 
track for the guidance of trackmen or others (when 
injured or broken), should be repaired at once, and 
placed in position by the trackmen; and if they are 
destroyed or rendered useless, the foreman should at 
once make requisition for new ones. 

Comply with the rules. Section foremen or others 
should use all signals strictly in compliance with the 
rules of the road governing their use. Never set out 
a danger signal at a shorter distance than that which 
is specified in the rules of the road as correct, because 
a serious accident may be the result, if a train cannot 
be stopped in time. 

Location of whistling posts and signs. Whistling 
posts for highway crossings should be set one-fourth 
of a mile from the crossing, on the engineman's side 
of the track. Whistling posts or signs of any descrip- 
tion should never be placed in a cut if it is possible 
to avoid it. It is always better to increase or diminish 
the distance to get them out of the cut. The distance 
should always be increased where there is a down 
grade, or when the law requires certain signs to be 
placed a specified number of feet or rods. This rule 
should also apply on sharp curves. 

Posts and signs should be set firmly in the ground, 
and ordinarily so far from the track that if knocked 
down or blown over, they will not fall upon it. Nevei* 
set any signs in a leaning or twisted position. High- 
way crossing signs should be set far enough away 
from the center of the wagon road, so that wagons 
loaded with bulky material, such as hay or straw, 



348 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

cannot strike the sign post or the cross arm at the 
top of it. 

Disregard of danger signals. Section foremen 
should report promptly any failure on the part of 
trainmen to honor danger signals set out by himself 
or his men. If an engineer run at high speed past 
the point for which you have set out a slow flag, or 
if a train run past a dangerous place before stopping, 
for which you have set out the necessary stop sig- 
nals, you must report all the facts without delay, giv- 
ing the engine and train number, and the time they 
passed the place where you were working. Foremen 
should not overlook any neglect of duty by the train- 
men in this matter. Always remember that the safety 
of trains and the lives of passengers and employes de- 
pend in a great measure upon a strict compliance with 
the company's rules. 

Look out for trains. Section foremen should al- 
ways keep a sharp lookout for trains while working 
on track, while using hand cars, or while transferring 
material from one track to another on cars. Never 
trust too much in this matter to the men, as they are 
not held responsible for accidents. To be on the safe 
side, a foreman should always be expecting a train; 
he will then be prepared for all extra trains or spe- 
cials, of which he has no previous notice. 

Always be prepared. Whenever it is necessary for 
a foreman to go to a wreck or washout, or to assist 
at any kind of work which calls him away from his 
own regular work, he should be prepared, having lan- 
terns ready to light, tools all on the car, tape line in 
his pocket, etc. Don't start out half equipped with 
tools. When you find a place to fix up or repair, and 
there is need of tools which you have not with you, 
you will have to send after them, perhaps delaying 
trains for an hour or more because of your careless- 
ness. Don 't go out on the track and discover a broken 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 349 

rail, and at the same time find that everything neces- 
sary for repairing it is on hand except chisels, and 
they are at your tool house, seven or eight miles away. 
A foreman who is careless in these matters is generally 
so in everything else he does, although he may hold 
his position for a time. The roadmaster or supervisor 
has him marked down as poor material, and will 
always remove him as soon as he can put a better man 
in his place. 

Hand car and tool houses. The hand car and tool 
houses should be kept outside the switches at yards, 
or wherever is the most convenient place. They should 
be located so that the men can get to and from work 
without being delayed by trains standing on the tracks. 
Tool and hand car houses and track supplies of any 
kind should always be placed at a sufficient distance 
from the track not to obstruct the view of the train- 
men or be likely in case of accident to fall on or near 
the track. 

Telegraph office report. When a section foreman's 
headquarters are located at a station, he should report 
at the telegraph office for orders and inquire for 
messages before going out to work every morn- 
ing and immediately after working hours in the 
evening. 

Removing hand cars from crossings. No material 
of any kind should ever be piled or placed on a high- 
way where it crosses the track. Section foremen or 
others should never take off their hand or push cars 
and leave them on the highway or private wagon cross- 
ings unless it is absolutely necessary to do so to get 
out of the way of a passing train. The car should 
then be immediately put back on the track and re- 
moved to a proper distance from the highway. Sec- 
tion foremen should provide places along their sec- 
tions, at convenient distances not less than 100 feet 
from highways or crossings, where they can take off 



350 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

their hand or push cars, and leave them when neces- 
sary. Obstructing' highways by leaving thereon track 
material, hand cars, etc., has been the cause of nu- 
merous accidents and claims for damages against rail- 
road companies. 

Throwing switches. Track foremen should not be 
in the habit of throwing switches for trivial reasons. 
Although it is the custom on most railroads to allow 
section foremen to carry a switch key, they should 
not abuse this right by unlocking and throwing 
switches to move a hand or push car without a load 
from one track to another, or to accommodate train- 
men who should do this work themselves. Hand cars 
and push cars, with a light load, can as well be moved 
from one track to another, where the rails come close 
together, without throwing the switch. Men employed 
on the section should not be trusted to throw a 
switch, except in the presence of the foreman. When 
a switch has been thrown on a side track, the person 
throwing it should not leave it until after throwing 
the switch back again for the main track and lock 
ing it. 

Any foreman who would throw, or allow others to 
throw a switch from the main track, and leave it in 
that position while performing a piece of work, or 
until it suited his convenience to throw it back, should 
be discharged; and he would be criminally liable if 
any accident should happen through his carelessness 
Those intrusted with the operation of switches cannot 
be too careful. 

Leaving hand cars on track. Some track foremen 
have a habit of leaving hand or push cars on the track, 
while cutting weeds or doing other work which re 
quires frequent moving from place to place. This 
should not be done. The main track should be kept 
clear at all times, except when trackmen must occupy 
it to do necessary repairs ; at such times or when mov- 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 351 

ing loads of material on cars, foremen should protect 
themselves with proper danger signals. 

Foremen should not leave hand cars on side tracks 
as they are likely to be smashed by trains switching, 
and cause a wreck at the same time. 

Loaning tools, cars, etc. Track foremen should 
never loan to persons outside of the company's service 
any tools, hand car, velocipede car, push car, or track 
material of any kind which is intrusted to their care, 
without permission of their superior officers. Fore- 
men themselves or their men should not use hand 
cars, velocipede cars, etc., on the track outside of regu- 
lar working hours, unless in the company's service, 
or with permission. 

Foremen who adhere strictly to this rule are very 
seldom requested by outside parties to grant them any 
privileges, and thereby save themselves annoyance. 
Track foremen should remember that company mate- 
rial of any kind, no matter how valueless it may ap- 
pear to them, is still the company's property; and 
that they have no right to appropriate it for their 
own use, or to sell it to others, without authority from 
their superior officers. 

Different varieties of ties. On a railroad where 
different varieties of ties are used in the track, the 
softer kind of wood should be used in straight track, 
and the hard wood ties should be used in the curves, 
and in sags between heavy grades where the speed of 
trains is very fast. If hard wood ties can be procured 
for curve track they should not be mixed with soft 
wood ties in the same track, because the rails will in 
the course of time cut a bed in the soft wood ties, and 
thereby affect the surface of the track. The ends of 
bridges and under switches are also good places to 
use hard wood ties, where they can be furnished for 
that purpose. White cedar is the best soft wood tie; 
white oak the best hard wood tie. 



352 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

The place for tools. Foremen should bring home 
every night and put in the tool house all tools which 
they have been using on the track during the day. 
Never leave tools out on the section. Unscrupulous 
persons who live near the track or who may pass along 
the track are very apt to appropriate any tools which 
they find. Any loss of track tools should be reported 
by foremen. 

Cutting rails. Whenever it is necessary to cut steel 
rails, track foremen should instruct the men how to 
do it properly. All steel rails should be cut as ac- 
curately as possible as to length, and allowance for 
expansion should be deducted from the length of the 
rail. No careless work should ever be allowed, such 
as cutting the rail short of the proper length. 

The line of the chisel cut around the rail should be 
continuous and square across the rail. Iron rails, as 
a general rule, need to be cut deeper than steel before 
they will break off. Hard steel, if cut deep, is likely 
to break off on either side of the cut, leaving a bad, 
unshapely end on the rail. To break off a rail at the 
cut, lift up the rail at the end nearest to the cut, and 
let the cut place fall over a piece of rail or angle bars 
laid on a tie, or something solid. Short pieces to 
be cut from rails may be broken off with the sledge. 
When cutting rails trackmen should not use a spike 
maul to strike the chisel, because this destroys the 
face of the spike maul, and splits pieces from the 
heads of steel tools, making them worthless in a short 
time. A good sledge for striking hard steel tools 
should be one of the tools on every section, and should 
be taken in preference to any other tool of the kind 
whenever necessity requires its use. 

Ballast in yards. The yard track at all stations in- 
side the switches should be dressed off level with the 
tops of the ties, both inside and outside of the track 
rails. When there is enough ballast the shoulder 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 



353 



should be level and of sufficient width to allow train- 
men or passengers room to walk along outside the 
ties. Where yard tracks are close together no rub- 




Fig. 82. Portable Rail Saw 

bish or obstructions of any kind should be placed on 
the space between them or allowed to remain there. 

Execute orders promptly. When the foreman re- 
ceives an order to do any special piece of work, he 



354- THE TRACIOf AN'S HELPER 

should do it at once and finish it up in the manner 
in which he is instructed. It is of the greatest im- 
portance that track foremen adhere strictly to this 
rule. Never let work wait to suit your convenience, 
nor do any work in a way contrary to that in which 
you are ordered to do it. 

Protection against fires. In the fall of the year 
when the weeds and grass along the right of way have 
become dead and dry, section foremen should take 
every precaution to protect the company's property, 
and that of persons living near the track, from dam- 
age by fire. Fire started by sparks from locomotives, 
or from other unknown sources should be looked after 
at once and extinguished. Do not cease your efforts 
until you are sure all danger is past. All wooden 
structures, bridges, culverts, etc., should be examined 
as often as you pass them and any combustible matter 
which may be close to the timbers should be removed. 
Be particular, when burning rubbish or grass along 
the right of way, always to work with a favorable 
wind. Run no risks, and if you see a doubtful smoke 
along the track, take your men, go to it at once, and 
find out what has caused it. 

Report stock killed. All stock killed or injured, 
and found lying on the right of way by the foreman, 
should be reported promptly to headquarters. Sec- 
tion foremen should always report the stock killed or 
injured. It is the duty of foremen to make an ex- 
amination of the body of the animal found, find the 
owner if possible, and get the age and cash value of 
the animal. If it was struck by a train, give engine 
number, train number and time of the accident, if 
you know it. In your report give all other informa- 
tion which is likely to be of any value to the company 
you are working for. If the owner of a dead animal 
does not remove it from the right of way, the section 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 355 

foreman should take his men and bury the carcass 
after investig*ating the cause of accident, etc. 

Foremen have no right to appropriate to their own 
use (or to allow others to do so) the carcass or hide 
of any animal killed along the track. 

Damage by fire. When property along- the right of 
way has been destroyed or damaged by fire, the sec- 
tion foreman should go to such place at once, examine 
the ground thoroughly, measure the distance from the 
center of the track to where the fire started, find the 
value of the property destroyed, make out an itemized 
estimate in his report ; and also state the direction of 
the wind when the fire was burning, and give a true 
account of everything as far as he knows. Do not 
accept the statements of others unless you know them 
to be correct. 

Be careful of material. When a track foreman lays 
or extends a piece of track, as soon as he has finished 
the job he should have every loose spike, bolt, splice, 
etc., picked up and taken care of. Track material ly- 
ing around where a gang of men has been working is 
very good evidence that the foreman is careless about 
his work and wasteful of the company's property. 

Never allow old iron taken out of track, old ties, 
broken brakes, and scrap, etc., to accumulate on your 
section. They should be taken to the station or placed 
in regular scrap bins or at platforms where it will be 
handy to load for shipment later. 

Do first what needs to be done. A track foreman 
should always have his work planned ahead. By giv- 
ing close attention to the track, as he passes over it 
daily each way, a foreman will always be able to see 
what needs to be repaired most, and it is hardly neces- 
sary to say here that such work should be done at 
once. Do not ride over the same low joint every 
day, a joint one-half inch out of gage or line, or pass 



356 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

the same broken joint tie or bolt hanging loose in the 
splices, expecting to fix such places the next week or 
waiting until the roadmaster calls your attention to 
these things. The longer you wait the more these lit- 
tle odd jobs increase in number, and at about the 
time you have set to do them you are called off to 
some other place. The work still increases during 
your absence, and in this manner things go on the 
year round. You are always behind, always wor- 
ried ; you think the roadmaster hard because he urges 
you to hurry; you make excuses for yourself, as for 
instance, that you were putting up a nice piece of 
track somewhere else on the section. Always remem- 
ber that if you had ten miles of the best track in the 
country, all good track except one rail length, and 
that rail dangerous, the balance of your section, no 
matter how good, would not save a train from get- 
ting wrecked, nor you from the blame that would 
justly fall upon you. In no other line of business 
does the old saying apply with greater force than on 
a railroad : ' ' Never put off till to-morrow what should 
be done to-day." 

How to do work. Experience will teach a foreman 
that the secret of keeping a good track on his section 
lies in doing all work well. Slight nothing. Do not 
surface up track to make a big show for the present, 
but surface it as fast as it can be done to make track 
that will remain good a long time. Very smooth 
track, well lined and gaged, will stay good sometimes 
for years without much repairing. On the other 
hand, track that might be called good, with an occa- 
sional slight dip in the surface, if there is much traffic 
over it, will soon be bad track because, where quar- 
ters or joints are perhaps only one quarter of an inch 
low after the track is surfaced, the weight of an en- 
gine or loaded cars strikes such low places with great 
force, and gradually increases the depression until 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 357 

the track becomes very rough and dangerous. If not 
cared for, low places in track knock out of gage and 
line besides getting low. The same method of doing 
work will not answer always. Foremen should adopt 
a method of doing work that will give the best results 
with the kind of material furnished. 

If there is only dirt for ballast, don't always be 
telling what good track you could have with gravel or 
rock, but see how good a track can be made with 
dirt. 

Foremen on duty. When on duty, the foreman 
should always be with his men and assist them in doing 
the work. It is his duty also to instruct his men by 
word and example as to the proper manner of per- 
forming all the different kinds of work in which they 
are together engaged. 

Adopt the best method. If you can improve on the 
old method of doing any kind of work, when you are 
not satisfied with the results of a trial adopt a new 
plan. When you do any kind of work on track, and 
it does not give satisfaction, always try to find the 
remedy for its defects. Do not say it can't be done, 
but remember that a man who finds himself in a diffi- 
cult position, if he has good judgment and a lively 
brain, can work out some of the most difficult problems 
without any previous knowledge of them. Never take 
a slow method to do any kind of work that you can do 
as well in a quicker way. Don 't forget that the world 
moves, but move with it. Try to learn something 
from the experience of others who are successful in 
the same business as yours. A trifle of time gained 
soon amounts to a day, month or year, if multiplied 
many times. 

Take for instance the case of two foremen putting 
new ties in the track. One removes all the dirt or 
ballast from the center of the track to the outside 
of the rails in order to get a number of ties into 



358 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

track at once; the other foreman moves the material 
in the center of track back upon the new ties as fast 
as he puts in two or three; and by that method the 
latter foreman saves himself and his men the labor 
of shoveling- many yards of ballast from outside the 
track rails to fill the center of the track. To bring 
a section of track up to anything like perfection, 
the foreman in charge of it must look closely after all 
the work in its minutest details, and allow nothing to 
go undone which would contribute towards improv- 
ing the track. None but careless foremen will line 
up one side of a track well and then leave it without 
taking the kinks out of the other side at the same 
time. A careless foreman will put a new tie into track 
without taking up to surface a low joint close to it. 
He will cut weeds past a joint with a bolt broken out 
of it without putting in a new bolt. He will make a 
trip over the section, and never notice a break in a 
fence, or if he does note it, will w'ait until he is notified 
by the roadmaster to fix it. It is likely that you will 
find the same foreman surfacing a piece of track with- 
out using a spirit level on it. Such a man is not fit 
to make a good laborer, much less a foreman ; and the 
piece of road in his charge will soon run down if he be 
not discharged and replaced by a foreman who has a 
desire to improve the track whenever he does work on 
it. The work of a careless foreman puts the road- 
master to watching him, because he informs on himself 
every day, while the careful, industrious foreman 
makes a good, permanent job wherever he works, and 
the result is a first-class track where recently may have 
been a very rough section. 

Work train service. Trackmen who are in charge 
of work train gangs should make it their business to 
keep the men employed whenever the train is delayed 
in the regular work. There is always plenty to do 
along the track at any point. A good foreman will 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 359 

have his work laid out ahead so as to avoid delays ex- 
cept those which are unavoidable. 

When possible, it is always best to put a good prac- 
tical workman in charge of a gang of men on a work 
train. It is poor economy to have an inexperienced 
trainman in charge of a train and a large crew of men, 
as is often the case. When the position of foreman 
over the men and conductor of the work train is held 
by one person, the preference should be given to a 
trackman, if competent to run the train, or to a man 
who has had some experience in both branches of the 
service. 

Source of responsibility. Work train conductors 
and foremen of gravel pits, or of steam shovel outfits, 
should receive their working orders from, and be 
strictly responsible to the roadmaster or supervisor 
on whatever division of the road they are working at 
the time. Work train conductors should report daily 
on blank forms furnished for that purpose; and, if 
required, they should also report to the division 
superintendent. They should also make a lay up re- 
port to the train dispatcher every evening after quit- 
ting for the day, and inform him where the train will 
work the following day. 

Work trains should always lay up over night at a 
telegraph station. 

Conductors of work trains should see that the axle 
boxes of all the cars in their trains are properly 
packed, and oiled as often as necessary, and that all 
defects in rolling stock or track where the train is 
working, are repaired. All accidents to cars, and any- 
thing which would interfere with or delay the work 
should be reported promptly, so that they may be 
quickly remedied. 

Care of interlocking switches. This branch of 
railroading is extremely intricate, and requires in the 
majority of cases a special department to handle it. 



360 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



Interlocking, as the name implies, is something that 
IS locked together with something else; or, in other 
words, if the switches controlled by the tower are set 
for one route, this will be indicated by the signals, and 
no change can be made until all the signals are back 
to the danger position, and then the switches can be 
thrown and the indications given accordingly. 

After the plant has been put in place a considerable 
portion of the working of it falls on the trackmen 
All running parts should be carefully cleaned and 
oiled daily. The bolts at heels of moving points 
should be so adjusted that an additional strain will not 




u 




^ 



m 




Fig. 83 



be brought on the levers in the towers. A very good 
method of accomplishing this is to use an angle bar, 
which is slightly bent, at the' heels of movable point 
frogs and switches. This can best be described by 
reference to the sketch, Fig. 83. 

In this the inside of the bar is bent from the middle 
toward the end of the moving point an amount equal 
to the throw at the end of the bar ; then very long bolts 
are used with lock nuts. This does away with any 
hinged device, and is absolutely safe. Also stops 
should be used at several places on the side of the mov- 
ing point farthest from the stock rail, so as to do away 
with any lost motion. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 



361 



With slip switches it is best to have the joints at 
the heels of all moving points come on a tie, these 
acting as solid supports. 

All ties should be tamped where interlocking is 
used, so as to prevent any settling ; and no connections 
should be attached to the ties except where abso- 
lutely necessary, as this renders renewals and changes 
much easier, there being nothing to disconnect or re- 
place. 

The adjustment of all point rails should be given 
careful attention, so as to be sure that they always 
stand up to the stock rail. 




Fig. 84. Foot Guard 



When connecting up switches with piping from 
towers, the person in charge should ascertain that the 
track is to proper grade and not likely to settle before 
the foundations for pipe lines are set; then these can 
be placed to a proper height. 

In heavy snow storms trains should be cautioned to 
pass over switches that are interlocked, with care, as 
it is often advantageous to disconnect certain parts 
to keep the plant running. For instance, detector 
bars, being so long, get filled and thus are rendered 
hard to move ; these can be disconnected. If the locks 



362 



THE TRACKMAN\S HELPER 



and switches, owing to the severity of the storm, are 
rendered useless from the tower, it is to the foreman's 
advantage to have these disconnected also, and throw 
the switches by emergency stands. This is an extreme 
case and should only be resorted to when a tie-up is 
imminent ; and as trains then have to move on a hand 




Direction of Traffic 





Interlocking 
Lsver 



Mechanically Operated Derailer 



signal they should use great precaution. These stands 
should be made as small and compact as possible and 
set up on ties ready to be connected in times of emer- 
gency. 

Track inspection. There should be a well organ- 
ized system of track inspection in force on every rail- 
road, and it should be made efficient in proportion to 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 363 

the amount of traffic and the condition of the track. 

On roads where only ten trains a day or less pass 
over track, an arrangement could be made to have 
the section foreman, on days on which his work does 
not call him to the end of his section, send a man over 
to examine the track from wherever the gang is work- 
ing and whenever there is economy in it the hand 
car could be run to the end of the section in prefer- 
ence to sending a man over on foot. In case of storms 
all track should be examined as necessary day or night. 

When a railroad is double tracked, or there are a 
large number of trains daily over a single track, a 
regular track-walker should be employed to go over 
the whole section once a day in each direction, and to 
report to the section foreman, and also to the station 
agent or operator, when there is a station at both ends 
of the section. 

The track-walker should so time his passage over 
the section as to be able to see all the track or at least 
the most dangerous points, a short time ahead of pass- 
enger trains. 

During extremely cold or stormy weather the track 
needs to be examined particularly and in order to in- 
sure inspection of track at least once a day, it is recom- 
mended that, when it is not possible to run a hand car, 
the section foreman with one of his men be allowed to 
ride one way on trains, against the storm, to the next 
station or to the end of his section and return back 
over the track on foot, carrying what signals and tools 
would be necessary in case of emergency. 

The conditions are so varied on different railroads 
and sometimes on small divisions of a railroad that 
each company can best organize a system of track in- 
spection which in the judgment of its officers is best 
suited to its wants. The foregoing methods are only 
offered as suggestions from which something more 
useful may be designed. 



XXIII 

PRACTICAL HINTS FOR TRACKMEN 

Safety first. The first ten of the following hints 
were published in a safety poster printed by the New 
York Central Railroad in sixteen languages, and pub- 
lished in the January 22, 1915, issue of the Ry. Age 
Gaz. 

1. Don't take chances. Think what "Safety First" 
means to you and to your family. Do your work in 
the safe way and be careful to avoid injury to yourself 
and others. 

2. Always be on the watch for trains in both direc- 
tions, and when you step from one track to another, 
ALWAYS LOOK IN BOTH DIRECTIONS FIRST. 
Do not stand close to rail of track while train is pass- 
ing. 

3. When your foreman signals you to step from 
track do so AT ONCE. Don't wait. Don't try to 
remove an extra shovelful of dirt first. That last 
shovelful of dirt may cost you your life. 

4. Never stand or walk upon the tracks except when 
necessary in the performance of your work, and then 
watch for trains in both directions, as trains are liable 
to be run against current of traffic or run in either 
direction at any time. 

5. Never use tools that have battered heads or are 
otherwise defective or unsafe for use. As soon as you 
discover a tool that is defective, put it away and call 
it to the attention of your foreman and get a good 
one in its place. 

364 



PRACTICAL HINTS FOR TRACKMEN 365 

6. Alwa3\s put tools or material of any kind where 
they cannot be struck by a train. Be particular about 
cleaning up rubbish you find lying near the track and 
never leave anything lying about for other men to 
stumble over. 

7. Never overload hand cars either with material or 
men. In operating hand cars be sure you afford your- 
selves all the protection that is required by the rules. 

8. Never get on and off moving cars or trains. 
Your duties do not require it, you are not accustomed 
to it and it is a dangerous practice. 

9. Always play safe. Think about what you are 
doing and don 't forget that you are working on a rail- 
road. 

10. Obey the rules. They were made for the pro- 
tection of yourself and others and they should be ob- 
served to the letter. 

11. In England during the year 1913 one trackman 
in 611 was killed, and one in 19 injured. In the U. S. 
about 85 per cent, of the maintenance men who are 
killed, and 35 per cent, of those who are injured are 
struck or run over by cargo engines, practically all 
these accidents being due to carelessness, thoughtless- 
ness or indifference because the men are violating the 
rules when they fail to clear the tracks on the ap- 
proach of a train. 

12. What can be gained by looking out for safety. 
As a result of attention to safety the number of in- 
juries to maintenance men on the B. & 0. for the first 
half of 1914 was reduced 66 per cent, as compared 
with the same period of 1913. On the C. & N. W. the 
reduction during the fiscal year of 1914 as compared 
with the fiscal year of 1910 was 39%o per cent, in 
deaths to track men, 27.7 per cent, in injuries to track 
men, 33.3 per cent, in deaths to bridge men and 38.8 
per cent, in injuries to bridge men; the average de- 
crease in accidents to all employees was 41.1 per cent. 



366 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

The El Paso & Southwestern Safety Department re- 
duced the number of fatal accidents to track men 37.5 
per cent, in 1914 as compared with the previous year. 
Similar figures on the Wabash show 46 per cent, de- 
crease in fatal injuries. 

Classified rules for safety and maintenance. The 
following rules were suggested by Mr. J. T. Bowser of 
the Queen & Crescent Route, and published in the Ry. 
Age Gaz. They are so excellent and well arranged 
that they are here given in full. 

13. General. It is the duty of all employees to 
watch for, and to report to their superior officers, all 
matters involving the safety of employees and the 
public. 

14. When it can be done without neglect of other 
duties, employes will warn off trespassers or others 
whose duties do not require their presence on the right 
of way or tracks. 

15. General instructions concerning safe practices 
must be posted in tool houses or camp cars where they 
can be seen by employees, and employes should be re- 
quired to read such instructions. 

16.. Supervision. Employes entering the service 
are required to read or have read to them outstanding 
instructions or rules involving their own safety or that 
of others. 

17. Foremen working on double track will require 
their men to step off of both tracks while trains are 
passing. 

18. Foremen are required to stay with their gangs 
at all times, to keep watch for trains and to see that 
their men perform their work in such a manner that 
neither their own safety nor that of others is endan- 
gered. 

19. Yard foremen or others in charge of men work- 
ing in places where the passage of engines or cars is 
very frequent, are prohibited from taking part in the 



PRACTICAL HINTS FOR TRACKMEN 367 

work at hand or performing any other work which 
will prevent their keeping a proper lookout for trains 
or cars, unless they assign some responsible man to 
keep such a lookout. 

20. Men having defective sight or hearing or men 
who are habitually careless in their work are not con- 
sidered desirable employees and must not be retained 
in the service. 

21. The use of gauntleted gloves by employees hand- 
ling heavy material is prohibited. 

22. Except in cases of emergency, employees must 
not handle work with which they are not familiar. 
(This applies particularly to handling of equipment 
and electrical work.) 

23. Under no condition must high tension electric 
power wires be handled by other employees than those 
whose duties require them to look after such matters. 
In cases of the breakage of such wires, a watchman 
should be left at such break until the arrival of the 
proper person to make repairs. 

24. Clearance and lad footing. Except on explicit 
instructions from proper authority, no track will be 
laid, nor will any structure be erected, which will not 
give ample clearance to a man on the side of a car. 

25. When conditions necessitate the construction of 
a structure or track which does not afford proper clear- 
ance to a man on the side of a car, the point should be 
protected by proper flagmen. 

26. When it is necessary to obstruct or in any man- 
ner change the nature of the ground where trainmen 
or others habitually walk or alight from trains, the 
despatcher or other proper authority must be advised 
so that notice to this effect may be put out. 

27. When it is necessary to make any radical change 
in tracks, structures or appliances in habitual use, 
proper authorities must be notified so that notice to 
this effect may be issued. 



368 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

28. Excavations left over night must be protected by 
railings, and temporary obstructions of any nature 
must be protected at night by red lights when this can 
be done without danger of such lights being confused 
with signals for train operation. 

Hand carsy push cars, motor cars and velocipedes. 

29. Track foremen will not permit the use, on their 
sections, of hand, motor, push, or velocipede cars, by 
others than those whose duties require the use of such 
cars or those having written permission from a proper 
authority. 

30. The use of any of the above cars for other pur- 
poses than the performance of their proper work is 
prohibited. 

31. Cars will not be used except when in charge of a 
foreman or a competent assistant. 

32. When meeting a train on either one of a double 
track cars must be set off. 

33. Where operators, 'phones or other means of com- 
municating with the despatcher are available, fore- 
men will obtain line-ups on trains before going out 
with cars. 

34. Foremen will protect their cars by flag when 
passing through tunnels or over portions of the line 
where trains cannot be seen for a sufficient distance to 
enable cars to be set off. 

35. The use of hand cars with wooden handles is 
prohibited. 

36. Foremen will not carry, or permit to be carried 
on their cars, any one not an employee of the company 
or any employee whose duty does not require the use 
of the car. 

37. Use of locomotives or trains. Employees in the 
maintenance of way department are prohibited from 
riding on locomotives. (This applies to work trains 
as well as other trains.) 

38. Except in the performance of their duties, em- 



PRACTICAL HINTS FOR TRACkMEN 3G9 

ployees in the maintenance of way department are pro- 
hibited from swinging upon or riding on trains or 
cars. 

39. Camp cars. When camp cars are to remain at 
one station a week or more they must be spurred out 
or otherwise protected from trains or cars. 

40. All movable articles in camp cars must be fast- 
ened down or otherwise prevented from moving when 
cars are to be handled. 

41. Heavy tools or material must not be suspended 
but must be placed on the floor or otherwise prevented 
from moving. 

42. Foremen in charge of cars are required to see 
that steps, hand holds, ladders, etc., are maintained in 
safe condition. 

43. Special equipment. The responsibility for the 
maintenance of all special equipment in safe condi- 
tion lies primarily with the operator, but foremen in 
charge of work on which such equipment is engaged 
will make frequent inspection. 

44. Lines, blocks and other apparatus on derricks, 
hoisting engines, etc., must be thoroughly inspected 
and tested before being used after the machine has 
been out of service. 

45. In freezing weather all water must be drawii 
from a boiler at night unless provision is made to keep 
it hot, and when equipment is to be stored, water must 
be drawn from boilers regardless of weather condi- 
tions. 

46. Road crossings, gates and fences. It is the duty 
of section foremen to see that all grade crossings are 
maintained in a safe and passable condition, especial 
care being exercised during the automobile season. 

47. Section foremen will keep cleared away from 
crossings weeds or other obstructions which prevent a 
clear view of approaching trains. 

48. All employees will close gates in right of way 



370 THE TEACKMAN'S HELPER 

fences when they are found open and will endeavor to 
have parties who use these gates keep them closed. 

49. Foremen will look out for breaks in the right of 
way fences or other conditions which will permit the 
entrance of stock onto the right of way and will 
remedy such conditions or will report them to the 
proper authority. 

50. Inspection and iise of tools. Foremen will 
satisfy themselves daily that all tools used by the men 
under their supervision are in safe condition, and they 
will prohibit the use of tools found to be defective. 

51. The use of jacks on the inside of the rail is 
prohibited. 

52. Tools must be removed from between the rails 
or from points close to the track while engines or cars 
are passing. 

53. Tools not in use must be kept picked up and 
placed where they will not be an obstruction. 

54. Scaffolding. Foremen in charge of work which 
requires scaffolding will personally inspect all ma- 
terial to be used in the scaffolds and satisfy themselves 
that such material is entirely safe for use. 

55. Foremen will personally oversee the construction 
of scaffolding and will see that a safe construction is 
used. During the use of the scaffolds foremen will see 
that they are not overloaded. 

56. The use of scaffolds by employees or others 
whose duties do not require it, is prohibited. 

57. Runways or ladders must not be located under 
scaffolds or at other points where tools or material are 
likely to fall, and where a considerable amount of work 
is to be done temporary railings must be erected to 
keep men from going beneath them. 

58. Cable and tackle scaffolds which have been 
stored or shipped must be thoroughly tested for de- 
terioration or injury before being used. 

59. Loading and unloading material. Cars must 



PRACTICAL HINTS FOR TRACKMEN 371 

not be loaded beyond marked capacity and top-heavy 
loading must be avoided. 

60. Foremen will inspect all material to be used for 
standards or stakes and will see that they are securely 
applied. Properly braced end boards must be applied 
where rails or similar material are loaded on flat cars. 

61. Rails will be loaded by machine where possible, 
but when necessary to load by hand the following pre- 
cautions must be observed: (A) Divide the gang 
equally on the ends of the rail ; (B) Do not attempt to 
throw rail unless an ample force is at hand to throw it 
clear; (C) designate one man to call directions and 
prohibit others from calling; (D) do not attempt to 
load where men cannot get away readily should the 
rail fall back. 

62. Loading must be discontinued while trains or 
cars are passing on adjoining tracks. 

63. When unloading material a lookout must be 
placed to warn persons passing the car. 

64. Material should not be unloaded from both sides 
of a car at once but from each side alternately. The 
same principle applies to loading material. 

65. Men should be called out of the cars when ma- 
terial is being dragged out of hopper bottom cars and 
should not be permitted to remain in any car while it 
is being switched. 

66. Handling of explosives. The use of torpedo 
signals on station grounds is prohibited. 

67. The storage of dynamite or other explosives in 
tool houses or camp cars is prohibited. 

68. All shipments of explosives must be made in ac- 
cordance with the rulings of the Bureau for the Safe 
Transportation of Explosives. 

69. The use of explosives by others than experienced 
men is prohibited. 

70. Charges which fail to explode must not be ap- 
proached until the expiration of ten minutes and they 



372 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

should be removed only by experienced men using no 
metal which could cause a spark. All others must re- 
main at a safe distance. 

71. Explosives must be drawn from the magazine 
only as required and must not be left on the work 
under any condition. 

Dont's. The following list of 65 hints was pub- 
lished by Mr. J. G. Wishart, of the C. R. I. & P. Ey. in 
Ry. Eng. & M. of W. in 1913 : 

72. Don't trust to a red flag unless you can see it. 
Someone may have stolen it. 

73. Don't obstruct track in the face of a passenger 
train. 

74. Don't put your track jack between the rails. 

75. Don't shim track with soft wood or temporary 
material. 

76. Don't surface your track down hill if you can 
avoid it. 

77. Don't raise your track more than necessary at 
summit of grades. 

78. Don't take out ties that are serviceable. 

79. Don't leave your tools out on the section for 
tramps and train wreckers. 

80. Don't leave spikes or track bolts where they can 
be placed on rail by children playing in the neighbor- 
hood. 

81. Don't use a briar scythe where you should use 
an axe or bushhook. 

82. Don't cut grass with a bushhook. 

83. Don't use a tamping pick after the head has 
been practically worn off. 

84. Don't burn your ties in the evening and leave 
the fire when you go home at night. 

85. Don't send one man over the track to tighten up 
.joints; he won't do it. Take the whole gang and get 
it done. 



PRACTICAL HINTS FOR TRACKMEN 373 

86. Don't leave overhanging rocks in cuts or tunnels 
that you know should be removed. 

87. Don't leave a broken rail because it matches up 
perfectly. Remove it from main track and before 
using again saw off broken ends and drill for angle 
bars; it is preferable to replace it with a full length 
rail. 

88. Don't smooth the track and forget to line it. 
Bad line will jerk a train worse than low joints. 

89. Don't use a bad lever in a hand car. It will 
break when you want it to hold, and is liable to cause 
an accident. 

90. Don't leave a switch point that does not fit up 
perfectly. 

91. Don't permit a spring rail frog to remain with 
the point spread open. 

92. Don't leave crossing plank projecting above the 
top of rail. 

93. Don't leave broken angle bars in the track. 

94. Don't leave your hand car on a crossing where 
it will frighten horses. 

95. Don't leave bolts in the rain, where they will get 
rusty. 

96. Don't leave your tools along the road, where 
they can be stolen. 

97. Don't dig a ditch and then throw the dirt where 
it will wash back into it when it rains. 

98. Don't ballast track where the roadbed is not 
wide enough to hold it. 

99. Don't leave dirt or foul ballast where it will hold 
water under the ties. 

100. Don't try to draw a rail with a spike — ^hold it 
to gage with a bar and drive the spikes straight. 

101. Don't carry non-employees on your cars. 

102. Don't trust to a red flag without torpedoes ; you 
may need the shells to prove you had a flag out. 



374 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

103. Don't waste dirt in a cut that you know should 
be put on the adjoining fill. 

104. Don't leave ties unspiked. 

105. Don't go to work without your level and gage. 

106. Don't leave your car and tools around station 
platforms, where they will obstruct travel. 

107. Don't leave your section without permission 
from your superior except in emergency. 

108. Don't allow ballast to roll down the bank or lie 
in ditches. 

109. Don't let new ties roll down the bank when 
distributing them. 

110. Don't throw steel rails off cars in such a man- 
ner as to bend them. They should either be skidded 
off, or dropped flat, where they will not fall on other 
obstructions. 

111. Don't allow your men to wear red garments 
when on duty. 

112. Don't hang your clothes on the roadway 
signs. 

113. Don't use dangerously defective cars or tools. 

114. Don't use bent spikes for track bolts. 

115. Don't guess at the number of ties put in track 
each month. Count them. 

116. Don't guess at the rail on your section. Meas- 
ure it. 

117. Don't be disrespectful to owners of land ad- 
joining the right of way. Eemember they are your 
neighbors. 

118. Don't permit material or buildings to be placed 
too near the track. 

119. Don't put wedges and shims between principal 
members of trusses. 

120. Don't try to support a plate girder at an un- 
braced flange. 

121. Don't let the nuts work off hook bolts of 
stringers and off guard rails. 



PEACTIOAL HINTS FOR TRACKMEN 375 

122. Don't force rivet holes where they should be 
reamed. 

123. Don't join members of iron bridges without 
first painting them. 

124. Don't allow drift to accumulate at the ends of 
piers. 

125. Don't allow tin roofs to be destroyed for the 
want of a little paint. 

126. Don't take out too many ties and allow the 
track to kink in hot weather. 

127. Don't fill in with ballast when the ties rest on 
dirt. 

128. Don't make ballast margin when you have not 
enough material to fill in between the ties and thor- 
oughly tamp them. 

129. Don't nick, slot or dent steel rails. 

130. Don't place rails in curves sharper than two 
degrees without first curving them with a rail bender. 

131. Don't allow the gage of track at frog points to 
vary from the standard without correspondingly ad- 
justing the flangeway of the guard rail. 

132. Don't allow your right of way fences to be- 
come dilapidated and allow stock to enter upon the 
right of way. 

133. Don't fail to fill out all your reports carefully 
and intelligently ; these reports are required for a pur- 
pose. 

134. Don't guess at data for your broken rail re- 
ports. Read what is marked on the rail. 

135. Don't allow farm gates in the right of way 
fence to stand open. 

136. Don't secure hand or push cars behind a mov- 
ing train to save the labor of pumping or pushing 
them. Many serious accidents have happened from 
this cause. If a train should slacken speed, or sud- 
denly stop, with a hand car attached, it would be hard 
to prevent the car from going under the coach or 



376 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

caboose, and the men on the car might be injured or 
killed. 

137. Whenever you receive a message from your 
roadmaster which requires an answer, don't wait or 
delay, but answer it promptly and correctly. 

138. Miscellaneous hints. The man who takes ad- 
vantage of published data becomes 100 years old in 
experience before he is 30 years old in life ; therefore, 
cultivate the habit of learning new methods from books 
and periodicals, and then don't wait to see them used 
but apply them yourself, even if you have to devise 
some details that are not described. 

139. Get a loose leaf notebook, such as those fur- 
nished by Lef ax, Philadelphia, and gradually build up 
for yourself your own handbook of tables and special 
information. 

140. Eesponsibility without authority and authority 
without responsibility are fatal to successful work. 

141. The adoption of a new idea does not indicate 
that you have not had proper experience. Opposi- 
tion to a new idea simply means that you are too 
"hidebound" to appreciate its value. 

142. Each foreman should keep a small diary in 
which to jot down the principal events of the day. 
This may turn out to be very useful to him and to his 
employers, especially in the event of lawsuits. 

143. One of the secrets of successful management 
consists in quickly finding out who are the inefficient 
men of the gang. The best foremen always hail from 
Missouri. Remember that in order to get the most 
successful work out of a man for his money he must 
have a stronger incentive to do his best than the mere 
fear of discharge for incompetency. 

144. The safe-guarding of the lives of your men or 
their hands and feet is worth money to your employer 
as well as to the men themselves. 

145. Don't use a high priced man to do a low priced 



PRACTICAL HINTS FOR TRACKMEN 377 

man's work and don't try to use a low priced man to 
do a high priced man 's work. He won 't do it anyway. 

146. Get the habit of instinctively thinking of your 
work in terms of dollars; your employer will soon 
begin to think of you in the same terms. 

147. Lookout for the chronic "can't be done" man. 

148. Do not allow timber to lie in the sun unpro- 
tected. This causes checking. 

149. When piling lumber leave wide spaces be- 
tween the boards and planks so that they may dry 
more quickly, and give the top layer considerable pitch 
to drain off surface water. Turn the top layer over 
often to prevent curling. 

150. Measure or weigh all materials upon delivery. 

151. In shoveling stiff clay which sticks to the 
shovel, dip the shovel in water between shovelfuls. 

152. In shoveling sticky mud, drill holes through 
the bowl of the shovel so that suction will not cause 
the mud to stick. 

153. In excavating a bank of earth lay down a tem- 
porary floor so that earth pitched down will fall on the 
floor, from which it can be easily shoveled. 

154. A very useful arrangement for moving heavy 
stones for short distances is a "skid road" such as is 
used by loggers. The material is carried on a sled 
that rides on a skid. Skids are laid like the cross 
ties of a railroad and are kept greased. 

155. In wheelbarrow work the ideal length of haul 
is 25 ft. but 50 ft. is not excessive. 75 ft. is too long 
and 100 ft. should never be attempted when horses and 
carts are available. 

156. Use round timber for posts of temporary 
trestles for trench braces, etc., wherever it can be 
bought for less money than sawn stuff. 

157. It is much more economical to lift water by 
means of a good pump than by bailing it with a bucket. 

158. For back filling trenches and any similar work 



378 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

use the largest sized shovels at hand, and in general, 
when there is little or no lift the shovel can be two 
or three times as large as when the man has to lift the 
material on his shovel. 

159. Handling men. A track foreman should be re- 
spectful to his superior officers without being servile, 
and when talking or writing to them he should show a 
confidence in himself without making too much of an 
exhibition of self-conceit or stubbornness, either of 
which will only be rewarded by their ridicule or con- 
tempt. A man who is placed over other men should 
have a will power strong enough to control them and 
maintain his authority without being either abusive or 
profane. To bulldoze an inferior is not the way to 
either instruct him or gain his respect. 

160. Foremen who can keep good men, and secure 
more men when wanted, are more valuable to a rail- 
road company than those who frequently discharge 
men and who seldom have help when it is needed. 

161. Try to gain the respect of your men and you 
will have faithful workers. To do this it is not neces- 
sary that you be too familiar with them. 

162. If you have a man working for you who will 
not do the work as you instruct him, discharge him and 
get some one who will. But do not work along in a 
groove, and think you have learned it all, and if any of 
your men suggest something which you know to be an 
improvement do not be ashamed to adopt it. 

163. Track foremen should learn the habit of study- 
ing out the best method of doing each piece of work on 
which they are enga'ged, and when practicable have 
the work planned out beforehand. The mind can 
often do more than the hands. 

164. A good track foreman will have a keen interest 
in his work, and be ambitious to show good results as 
well on the last day that he works for a company as 
when he was first promoted from the shovel. 



PRAOTIOAL HINTS FOR TRACKMEN 379 

165. Foremen who are not prompt in executing the 
orders of the roadmaster, and who often do work in a 
way contrary to that in which they have been in- 
structed, seldom hold a position long on any road. 
This kind of men, together with that class which fre- 
quent saloons and get drunk occasionally, constitute 
about nine-tenths of the section foremen who are dis- 
charged for cause. Roadmasters very seldom dis- 
charge a foreman for his want of knowledge about 
some particular piece of work, and they are always 
willing to give information as to the best method of 
doing work when asked for it. Whenever a track 
foreman begins to think his work is too hard and his 
pay is too small, or that the officers of the road are not 
using him right, he becomes careless and loses all in- 
terest in the work. That man should quit at once and 
go hunt a job in some other place, where he might be 
better satisfied and appreciated. Every track fore- 
man should make a continued effort to elevate his oc- 
cupation and make it respectable. Be sober, honest 
and industrious and you will be successful. 

166. Section record. The attention of trackmen 
generally, and especially section foremen, is here again 
called to the importance of keeping a record of every- 
thing connected with the piece of track in their charge. 
Every foreman should know the length of his section, 
the amount of straight and curve track, the degree of 
every curve, the different brands of steel or iron rail, 
how much of each and when laid. He should also 
know the number of cuts on his section and the 
amount of snow fence, if any, on each cut ; the bridge 
and culvert numbers and highway or railroad cross- 
ings, and the distance they are from his headquarters ; 
and many other facts of importance which are very 
valuable to assist a man in organizing work and mak- 
ing comparisons, also that he may be in a position to 
answer questions of his superior officers as to location 



380 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 



of places and things without the necessity of making 
special examinations when the time cannot well be 
spared. The following example illustrates a simple 
form for condensing the information referred to, and 
is a handy way for foremen to write it out on the 
pocket memorandum: 

Section No. 10 

Length of Section 6 miles, 1,000 feet 

" " north side track 1,600 " 

" " house track 1,800 " 

" " north side track 1,600 " 

" " south track 1,000 " 



Bridge No. 
50 
51 
52 



No. of Bents 

3 

8 

Iron 



Length 
of Span 
30 feet 
100 " 
120 " 



Distance 

from Station 

2 miles 

2% " 
31/4 " 



Culvert No, 
186 

187 
188 



Box 



Stone 

1 



Iron Pipe 



Distance 

from Station 

ly^ miles 

21/2 " 



Cuts, Length 

in Feet 

One 352 

" 488 

" 1260 



Height 

Above Rail 

4 feet 

8 " 

9 " 



Panels of 
Snow Fence 
22 
301/2 



Distance 

from Station 

3 miles 

3% " 



Steel Rail, 

Amount 

4 miles, 500 ft. 

2 miles, 500 ft. 



When Laid Brand 

1895 N. C. R.M. Co. 

75 lbs. 
1899 Crawshaw 

85 lbs. 



Extends 
from Station 

West— 
From Steel to 
End of Section 



DIMENSIONS OF iSTANDARD FROGS AND SWITCHES 
FOR NARROW-GAGE INDUSTRIAL AND MINE TRACKS. 



Standard Frog for Motor Turnout (Right or Left). 
Length 



Length 







Wt. of 


Length 


of Heel 


Length 


of 


Frog 


Frog 


Rail, Lb. 


of 


Wing Dis- 


of Straight 


No. 


Angle, 


per Yd. 


Frog, 


Rail, tance. 


Throat, 


Rail. 




X 




A 


B C 


D 


E 


Deg. Min 




Ft. In. 


In. Ft. In. 


In. 


Ft. In. 


3 


18 55 


30 


4 


16 2 8 


315/16 


2 3 


4 


14 15 


30 


4 8 


20 3 


53/4 


2 9 


4 


14 15 


40 


4 8 


20 3 


6 1/2 


3 


5 


11 25 


30 


4 10 


20 3 2 


73i6 


3 


5 


11 25 


40 


5 
Standard 


20 3 4 
'Switch * 


81/8 


3 


' 


Length 


Dist. 


Length oi 


Rail Gage 


Length of 


Rod 




of 


Between 


Rail 


Punch- of 


Bridle 


Punch- 


Wt. of 


Point, 


Bridle 


Planed. 


ing. Track, 


Rod 


ing. 


Rail, Lb 


F 


Rods, L 


H 


J K G 


M 


N 


per Yd. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


In. In. In. 


Ft. In. 


In. 


20 


4 


(1 rod) 


1 4 


4 2 36 


5 8I4 


25 


25 


4 


(1 rod) 


1 6 


4 2 40 


6 01/4 


29 


30 


4 


(1 rod) 


1 9 


4 2 42 


6 21/4 


31 


30 


6 


2 3 


2 6 


4 2 44 


6 41/4 


33 


30 


7 6 


3 


3 


4 2 48 


6 8I/4 


37 


40 


6 


2 3 


2 9 


5 21/2 — 




— 



40 



7 6 



3 6 



The throw of switch point is 3i/^-in. for all cases. 



5 21/2 — - — — 



DIMENSIONS FOR TURNOUTS IN NARROW-GAGE 
TRACKS * 

Gage of Track, 36 In. 















Chord 


Middle 




Length of 






Length of 


of 


Ordinate 


Frog 


Switch 


Radius of 


Length of 


Straight 


Curved 


of Curved 


No. 


Points. 


Turnout. 


Lead, 


Rail, 


Rail, 


Rail, 




P 


R 


S 


T 


U 


V 




Ft. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. 


In. 


In. 


3 


4 


42 


73/16 


16 311/16 


10 911/16 


10 


109/16 


43/^4 


4 


4 


81 


IV2 


19 3 


13 5 


13 


8 


3% 


4 


6 


75 


8I/4 


22 6 


14 8 


14 


10% 


4%6 


5 


4 


141 


71/4 


22 27/^ 


16 47/8 


16 


75/16 


27/? 


5 


6 


126 


7 


26 01/2 


18 21/0 


18 


43/4 


315/16 


5 


71/2 


122 


97/8 


28 41/2 


19 01/2 


19 


2% 


47/16 


6 


iy-i 


184 


93/8 


30 9% 


21 5% 


22 


9 


43/16 








Gage of Track, 


42 in. 








3 


4 


52 


11%6 


18 91/4 


12 111/4 


13 


33/4 


415/16 


4 


4 


99 


21/8 


22 3 


16 5 


16 


8I4 
21/^ 


41/8 


4 


6 


92 


63^ 


25 9 


17 11 


18 


514 


5 


4 


172 


01/2 


25 9% 


19 111/8 


20 


2 


31/9 

41^16 


5 


6 


153 


83/8 


29 1114 


22 11/4 


22 


37/8 


5 


71/2 


149 


iVs 


32 51/2 


23 11/2 


23 


4 


57/16 


6 


71/2 


223 


5% 


36 71/2 


27 31/2 


27 


6 


51/16 



* The table prepared by Mr. Brown includes five widths of track 
gage — 36-in.; 40-in. ; 42-in. ; 44-in, ; and 48-in. We give the figures 
for the 36-in. and 42-in. gages only. 

381 



. 

1/16 

Vs 

3/l6 

5/l« 
% 
%6 

1/2 



11/16 

% 

1%6 

7^ 



15/i 



MISCELLANEOUS TABLES AND RULES 



Table of inches in decimals of a foot. 

0" 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" 6" 7" 8" 9" 10" 11" 

.083 .167 .25 .333 .417 .5 — .583 .667 .75 .833 .917 

.005 .089 .172 .255 .339 .422 .505 .589 .672 .755 .839 .922 

.010 .094 .177 .260 .344 .427 .510 .594 .677 .760 .844 .927 

.016 .099 .182 .266 .349 .432 .516 .599 .682 .766 .849 .932 

.021 .104 .188 .271 .354 .438 .521 .604 .688 .771 .854 .938 

.026 .109 .193 .276 .359 .443 .526 .609 .693 .776 .859 .943 

.031 .115 .198 .281 .365 .448 .531 .615 .698 .781 .865 .948 

.037 .120 .203 .287 .370 .453 .537 .620 .703 .787 .870 .953 

.042 .125 .208 .292 .375 .458 .542 .625 .708 .792 .875 .958 

.047 .130 .214 .297 .380 .464 .547 .630 .714 .797 .880 .964 

.052 .135 .219 .302 .385 .469 .552 .635 .719 .802 .885 .969 

.057 .141 .224 .307 .391 .474 .557 .641 .724 .807 .891 .974 

.063 .146 .229 .313 .396 .479 .563 .646 .729 .813 .896 .979 

.068 .151 .234 .318 .401 .484 .568 .651 .734 .818 .901 .984 

.073 .156 .240 .323 .406 .490 .573 .656 .740 .823 .906 .990 

.078 .162 .245 .328 .412 .495 .578 .662 .745 .828 .912 .995 



^6 



Track bolts per mile of single track. 

Average Number in a Keg of 200 Pounds Kegs per Mile — Hex. Nuts 



Size 




Hexa- 


Suitable 


Add 6% for Square Nuts 


of Bolt 


Square 


gonal 


Rail 


30 Foot Rails 


33 Foot Rails 


Inches 


Nut 


Nut 


Lbs per Yd. 


Joint 


Holes 


Joint 


Holes 


21/2 X % 


390 


425 


30 


3.31 


4.96 


3.01 


4.51 


2% X % 


379 


410 


35 


3.44 


5.16 


3.13 


4.70 


3 X % 


366 


395 


40 


3.58 


5.37 


3.26 


4.89 


3 X % 


250 


270 




5.23 


7.85 


4.76 


7.14 


31/4 X % 


243 


261 




5.40 


8.10 


4.91 


7.36 


31/2 X % 


236 


253 


50 


5.57 


8.36 


5.06 


7.59 


3% X % 


229 


244 


5.5-60 


5.77 


8.65 


5.25 


7.87 


4 X % 


222 


236 


65-70 


5.97 


8.95 


5.43 


8.15 


41/4 X % 


215 


228 


75 


6.18 


9.27 


5.62 


8.43 


31/2 X % 


170 


180 




7.82 


11.7 


7.11 


10.7 


3% X % 


165 


175 




8.05 


12.1 


7.32 


11.0 


4 X % 


161 


170 




8.28 


12.4 


7.53 


11.3 


414 X % 


157 


165 


80 


8.53 


12.8 


7.75 


11.6 


41/2 X % 


153 


160 


85 


8.80 


13.2 


8.00 


12.0 


4% X % 


149 


156 


90-100 


9.02 


13.5 


8.20 


12.3 



To find gross tons of rail per mile of track, multi- 
ply weight of rail in pounds per yard by 11 and divide 
by 7. 

To find feet of rail per gross ton, divide 6,720 by 
weight of rail per yard. 

382 



To find the weight of castings by the weight of 
their patterns. 

Multiply the weight of the white pine pattern by 
16 for cast iron. 



17.1 
17.3 


' wrought iron, 
' steel. 


18 

25 


: S" 


12.2 


' tin, 


13 


' brass, 


11.4 


' zinc. 



Widening of gage on curves. Rule adopted by the 
A. R. E. Assn. in 1910, is as follows : 

Standard gage for everything up to 8° of curvature. 
Above 8°, increase % in. for each two degrees or frac- 
tion thereof, up to a maximum of 4' 9I/2", correspond- 
ing to a 23° curve. 

Where frogs cannot be avoided on the inside of the 
curve, no widening of gage should be attempted, but 
the above rule must be modified to allow standard gage 
opposite the frog, or else the flangeway of the frog 
should be widened to compensate for the increased 
gage. 



383 



Lumber table — Showing number of feet, board 
measure, contained in a piece of joist, scantling or 
timber of the sizes given 

Size in Length in Feet of Joists, Scantling and Timber 

Inches 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 42 44 45 



2X4 


. 8 


9 


11 


12 


13 


15 


16 


17 


19 


20 


28 


29 


30 


2X6 


. 12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


42 


44 


45 


2X8 


. 16 


19 


21 


24 


27 


29 


32 


35 


37 


40 


53 


58 


60 


2 X 10 


. 20 


23 


27 


30 


33 


37 


40 


43 


47 


50 


70 


74 


75 


2 X 12 


. 24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


44 


48 


52 


56 


60 


84 


88 


90 


3X4 


. 12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


42 


44 


45 


3X6 


. 18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


33 


36 


39 


42 


45 


63 


66 


68 


3X8 


. 24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


44 


48 


52 


56 


60 


84 


88 


90 


3 X 10 


. 30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


65 


70 


75 


105 


110 


113 


3 X 12 


. 36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


66 


72 


78 


84 


90 


126 


132 


135 


4X4 


. 16 


19 


21 


24 


27 


29 


32 


35 


37 


40 


56 


58 


60 


4X6 


. 24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


44 


48 


52 


56 


60 


84 


88 


90 


4X 8 


. 32 


37 


43 


48 


53 


59 


64 


69 


75 


80 


112 


118 


120 


4X 10 


. 40 


47 


53 


60 


67 


73 


80 


87 


93 


100 


140 


146 


150 


4 X 12 


. 48 


56 


64 


72 


80 


88 


96 


104 


112 


120 


168 


176 


180 


6X6 


. 36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


66 


72 


78 


84 


90 


126 


132 


135 


6X8 


. 48 


56 


64 


72 


80 


88 


96 


104 


112 


120 


168 


176 


180 


6 X 10 


. 60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


110 


120 


130 


140 


150 


210 


220 


225 


6 X 12 


. 72 


84 


96 


108 


120 


132 


144 


156 


168 


180 


250 


265 


270 


8X 8 


. 64 


75 


85 


96 


107 


117 


128 


139 


149 


160 


224 


234 


240 


8 X 10 


. 80 


93 


107 


120 


133 


147 


160 


173 


187 


200 


280 


294 


300 


8 X 12 


. 96 


112 


128 


144 


160 


176 


192 


208 


224 


240 


336 


352 


360 


10 X 10 


.100 


117 


133 


150 


167 


183 


200 


217 


233 


250 


350 


366 


375 


10 X 12 


.120 


140 


160 


180 


200 


220 


240 


260 


280 


300 


420 


440 


456 


12 X 12 


.144 


168 


192 


216 


240 


264 


288 


312 


336 


360 


504 


528 


500 


12 X 14 


.168 


196 


224 


252 


280 


308 


336 


364 


392 


420 


588 


616 


630 



14X14 ..196 229 261 294 327 359 392 425 457 490 686 716 735 



384 



INDEX 



INDEX 



Absence from Duty 

Accidents 

To Trains 

Accommodations for 

Track Laying 

Account for Track Ma- 
terial 

Adze 

Adzing 

Allowance for Expansion 
American Railroad Fence, 

Fig. 36 

Anchors, Rail 

Anti-Creepers 

On Eads Bridge 

Location 

Angle Bars and Bolts . . 
Axe 

Ballast 

Amount of Gravel re- 
quired Per Mile of 
Track 

Burned Clay 

Cinder 

Cleaning with Screens 

Compression 

Cost of Mechanical 
Tamping 

Cost of Screening 

Crushed Stone 

Depth 

Displaced by Churning 
of Ties 

Furnace Slay 

Force for Screening. . . 

Gang 16, 

Gravel 



339 Ballast — continued 

331 Gravel Pits 136 

337 In Cuts 133 

In Yards 352 

3 Mechanical Tamping. . 131 

Proper Size of Tamp- 

343 ing Face 133 

289 Tamping 130, 140 

316 Tamping Broken Stone 
146 or Slag 141 

Tamping Burnt Clay. . 140 
192 Tamping Chats, Gravel 
9 or Chert 141 

165 Tamping Cinder 140 

166 Tamping Earth 140 

11 Uniform Tamping ... 130 

160 Ballasting 120 

289 Renewing Ties 98 

Bark, To be removed 
120 from all Timber 97 

Battered Rails 335 

Bedding Ties 4 

135 Benders, Rail 233 

120 Bent Splices 341 

120 Bill of Material of 
123 Switch-ties for vari- 

158 ous Turnouts and 

Cross-overs 271 

132 Black Locust, Fence 

129 Posts 193 

120 Blacksmith Shop Outfit. 3 
139 Blasting Rocks 248 

Board Fences 188 

158 Boards, Table showing 
120 no. required per Mile 189 

128 Bois d'Arc, Fence Posts. 193 
138 Bolts, Nut Locks for 

120 Tightening 73 

387 



388 



INDEX 



Bolts, Tightening 71 

Boring Ties by Hand, 

Method 63 

Rate and Cost 66 

Bridges, Line on 74 

Repairing 74 

Special Rail Section to 
prevent Creeping on 

Bridges 176 

Bridges and Culverts 

Heaved by Frost. . . 211 

Broken Center Pins 327 

Broken Stone or Slag 

Ballast, Tamping . . 141 

Brown Rail Loader 17 

Bucking Snow 217 

Building Fences 185 

Burned Clay Ballast 120 

Tamping 140 

Calculation of Elevation 

on Curves 230 

Camp Cars 369 

Car Tracks, Metliod of 

Squaring 324 

In Ditch 325 

On Soft Ground 325 

Cars, Loaded Wrecked 

Cars 326 

Cars on Ties 325 

Cards, Time Cards and 

Rules 346 

Care of interlocking 

Switches 359 

Catalpa, Fence Posts... 193 

Cedar, Fence Posts 192 

Center Pins, Broken 327 

Centrifugal Force 226 

Centripetal Force 227 

Chain, used in pulling 

with Locomotive ... 327 

Change in Line 13 

Channels for Conveying 

Water 78 

Chart, Annual Consump- 



Chart — continued 

tion of Ties on I. C. 

R. R Ill 

Chestnut, Fence Posts.. 193 
Ties 50 

Churning of Ties and 
Displacing of Bal- 
last 158 

Cinder Ballast 120 

Tamping 140 

Cinders to keep Muskrats 

from Burrowing ... 79 

Classified Rules for 
Safety and Mainte- 
nance 366 

Claw Bars 299 

Clay, Wet Clay in Em- 
bankment 82 

Cleaning out Cuts 183 

Cleaning out Ditches. ... 76 

Cleaning Stone Ballast 

with Screens 123 

Cleaning the Right of 

Way 181 

Clearing Water Passages 340 

Closing up for Trains. . 146 

Cold Chisels 299 

Compression of Ballast. 158 

Concrete, Cost of Con- 
crete Fences 202 

Concrete Post Machine, 

Fig. 39 204 

Concrete Posts, Rein- 
forcement, Fig. 40 . 205 

Concrete Proportions . . . 201 

Concrete Sign Posts, De- 
tails of. Fig. 37.. .. 198 

Conditions on Mountain 

Roads 242 

Conley All Rail Frog, 

Fig. 57 266 

Connections, Minimum 

Length of Rail 14 

Conveying Water away 

from Tracks 78 

Creeping, Anti-Creepers 
in Eads Bridge 165 



INDEX 



389 



Creeping — continued 

Diagram explaining 
Fig. 30 168 

English Rail Sections 
to Prevent Creeping 175 

Location of Preventive 
Devices 11 

Means of Restrict- 
ing 174, 169 

Rail 9, 162 

The Relative cost of 
Maintenance of un- 
anchored Track & 
anchored to prevent 
Creeping 178 

Special Rail Section to 
prevent Creeping on 

Bridges 176 

Creosoting Ties 62 

Cross Cut Saws 299 

Cross-Over, Distance be- 

tAveen Frog Points. 278 

Bill of Material of Ties 271 

Tracks 278 

Crossing Frogs 267 

Crossing of Narrovi^ & 
Standard Gage 

Track 285 

Crushed Stone 120 

Culverts 80 

Heaved Bridges and 
Culverts 211 

Removing Snow 213 

Curve, Calculation of 

Elevation 230 

Diagram showing 
Method of Lining, 
Fig. 48 239 

Difference in Length 
between Inner and 
Outer Rails 225 

Easements 241 

Effect of Speed on Ele- 
vation 227 

Elements of Fig. 43.. 224 

Run Off 240 



Curves — continued 

Table of Elevation of 
Outer Rail in Inches 232 
Curves, Centrifugal Force 226 
Centripetal Force . . . 227 

Elevation 226 

Geometrical Properties 221 

Laying Out 221 

Lining 238 

Method of Spiking .... 45 
Printed Information 

for Foremen 236 

To Lay out a Curve by 

Offsets 221 

Turnouts from 277 

Use of Short Rails. . . 12 
Curved Track, Effect of 
Locomotive and Car 

Wheels upon 240 

Curving Rails 231 

Cuts, Grading 80 

Protection from Drift- 
ing Snow 214 

Snow in Cuts 212 

Wet 79 

Cutting Rails 352 

Cutting Weeds 116 

Damage by Fire 355 

Danger Signals, Disre- 
gard of 348 

Distance at which to 

set 345 

"Dead Man" 327 

Deep Cuts 79 

Deflections for 100 ft. 

Chord, Table of 222 

Depth for Ballast 139 

Derailer, Mechanically 

Operated 362 

Derailing Switches .... 276 
Details of Concrete Sign 

Posts, Fig. 37 198 

Details of Line & Corner 
Fence Posts and 
Braces, Fig. 38 200 



390 



INDEX 



Difference in Length be- 
tween the inner and 
outer Eails of a 

Curve ; . 225 

Different Varieties of 

Ties 351 

Dimensions of Ties 90 

Direction of Rolling Re- 
sistance, Fig. 31 . . . 172 

Discharges 330 

Disconnected Track, Lin- 
ing 341 

Distance between Frog 
Points in a Cross- 
Over 278 

Distance to Set out Dan- 
ger Signals 345 

Distribution of New Ties 92 
Disregard of Danger Sig- 
nals 348 

Ditching, Template .... 77 

Ditches, Cleaning 76 

Form 76 

Grade 76 

Removing Snow 213 

Protective 77 

Ditching 75 

Don'ts 372 

Double Tracking, Force 

required 32 

Drainage 75 

Of High Fills 81 

Drifting Snow, Protec- 
tion against 214 

Drifts, Preparing for 

Snow Plow 219 

Drills, Standard Track.. 311 
Duplicate Time Books.. 342 



Easements on Curves... 241 
Economy in Use of 
Treated and Un- 
treated Ties 114 

Economy in Use of 

Treated Ties 112 



Effect of Wave Motion on 
Rail. Tendency of 
Rail to work into 
Face of Tie 160 

Effect of Wave motion of 
Rail, Injury to the 

Rail 159 

Injury to the Road Bed 159 
Raising of Spikes.... 160 
Wear of Angle Bars 
and Bolts 160 

Effect of Speed on Eleva- 
tion 227 

Effect of Locomotive & 
Car Wheels on 
Curved Track 240 

Effects of Wave Motion 
of Rail on Track 
Movements 157 

Elements of Railroad 

Curve, Fig. 43 224 

Elevation, Effected by 

Speed 227 

How to Calculate on 

Curves 230 

Of Curves 226 

Of Outer Rail on Curve 
in Inches 232 

Embankments, Should 
not be robbed of Dirt 
or Ballast to trim 

the Track 1.82 

Protection of, on 
Mountain Roads . . . 249 

Emergency Rails 339 

End Door Cars, Device 
for Unloading Rails 
from, 28 

Engines, Wrecked 328 

Equipment, Special .... 369 

Examining Track 334 

Expansion and Contrac- 
tion 7 

Allowance for Expan- 
sion 146 

Of Rails 145 



INDEX 



391 



Expansion — continued 
Of Rails on Mountain 

Roads 246 

Explosives, Rules for 

Handling 371 

Extra Men 340 

Extra Work 336 

Extremes of Temperature 332 

Fall Track Work 180 

Fences 185 

Board Fences 188 

Corner, Fig. 34 186 

Comparative Cost and 
Serviceability of 

Wood and Steel 

Posts 191 

Cost of Concrete Posts 202 
Cost of setting Wood 

Posts 195 

Day's Labor for One 

Man in building. . . 191 
Fastening Wire on 
Grooved Posts, Fig. 

41 207 

Fences, Machine for Mak- 
ing Concrete Posts, 

Fig. 39 204 

Method of Fastening 
Wire on Round 

Posts, Fig. 42 208 

Method of Molding Re- 
inforced Concrete 

Posts 202 

Portable Snow Fence, 

Fig. 49 245 

Posts, Cost & Life 193 

Posts, details of Line 
& Corner Fence Posts 
and Braces, Fig. 38. 200 
Posts required per 

Mile 189 

Protection from Fire. 338 

Rate of Building 191 

Snow Fences 189 

Snow 214 



Fences — continued 

Standard Fence, Fig. 

35 187 

Steel Posts ......... 194 

Table showing no. of 
Boards required ... 189 

Weight of Wire 190 

Weight of Nails 190 

Wood Posts 192 

Woven Wire 191 

Fills, Drainage 81 

Fire, Damage by 355 

Protection, against . . . 354 

Flags 306 

Flanging Track 212 

Flanger with Rotary 

Plow 244 

Foot Guard, Fig. 84 361 

Form of Ditches 76 

Forms, printed 343 

Foreman, Double Track- 
ing 38 

Foreman's Report of Ties 

put in Track 105 

Foremen, Two Kinds ... 97 

Reports 344 

Forwarding Material ... 16 
Force, Required for Dou- 
ble Tracking 32 

For Track laying 17 

For Track laying Ma- 
chine 24 

For Laying a Single 

Rail '. 144 

Screening Ballast .... 128 

Frog, Fig. 56 265 

Frogs, and Switches, Bill 
of Material for vari- 
ous Turnouts and 

Cross-Overs 271 

And Switches 255 

Crossing 267 

Conley All Rail Frog, 

Fig. 57 266 

Guard Rails 268, 269 

In Ladder Track 286 



392 



INDEX 



Frogs — continued 

Length 267 

Laying 267 

Number, how ascer- 
tained 287 

Points, to find distance 

between 278 

Furnace Slag Ballast. . . 120 

Gage 16 

Tie 6, 94 

Gaging, Rails 145 

Track 60 

Gasoline Speeder, Fig. 

69 298 

Gasoline Torch for Thaw- 
ing interlocking con- 
nections 219 

General Winter Work.. 209 
Geometrical Properties of 

Curves 221 

Grade of Ditches 76 

Grading Cuts 80 

Gravel, Ballast 120 

For One Mile of Track. 135 

Pits 136 

Plow, to put back on 
Cars when wrecked. 326 

Guard Rail, Fig. 55 265 

Guard Rails 268, 269 

Hand Cars 290 

And Speeders . 293 

Correct and Incorrect 
Position of Axle, Fig. 

67 294 

Gasoline Speeder, Fig. 

69 298 

Houses 349 

Leaving, on Track .... 350 

Single Speeder, Fig. 68 . 297 

Handling Men 378 

Hardwood Ties 50 

Heaved Bridges and Cul- 
verts 211 

Heavy Traffic, Laying 

Rails under 149 



Hewn Ties 88 

High Fills, Drainage.... 81 

High Places 130 

High Raising 134 

Highway Crossing, Ex- 
amination of Ties. . 98 
Holes for Screw Spikes . . 52 

Conclusions 56 

Hot Blast Gasoline Torch 
for Thawing inter- 
locking Connections. 219 

Ice, to be cleaned from 

Rails 244 

Industrial Railway, Turn- 
outs for Narrow 

Gage Track 281 

Injured Signals 347 

Inspecting Ties 92 

Inspection, and Use of 

Tools 370 

Of Track 362 

Of Ties, Responsibility 
for, on Various 

Roads 101 

Of Ties 100 

Interlocking Connections, 
thawing with Hot 
Blast Gasoline Torch 219 
Switches, Care of 359 

Jacks 309 

Jim Crow 311 

Joint Plate Peddler 35 

Joint Ties 96 

Locating 6 

Joints, Low Joints 333 

Effect of Cold 8 

To remedy too wide an 
Opening at the Joints 183 

Ladder Track, Location of 

Frogs 286 

Land Slides 248 

Lanterns 301 



INDEX 



393 



Laying Track 1, 5 

By Machines 1 

Laying the Rails 6 

Laying Rails in Sag. ... 12 

Laying, New Rail 144 

Laying Rail under Heavy 

Traffic . . . : 149 

Laying Force required. . . 17 
Laying, Cost by Hand. . . 41 
Laying by Machine, Cost 

20, 40 

Laying by Machine, Cost 

and Organization . . 38 
Laying Second Track, 

Cost 41 

Laying out Curves 221 

Laying Frogs 267 

Laying Switches 260 

Leads, Table for Points 

Leads 264 

Table of Switch Leads. 262 
Leaving Hand Cars on 

Tracks 350 

Lining Bars 300 

Length, Difference in 
Length between In- 
ner and Outer Rails 

of a Curve 225 

Levels 120 

Track 307 

Level Track in Yards... 135 

Life of Steel Rail 143 

Lining, Old Track 70 

Curves 238 

Disconnected Track . . 341 

New Track 15 

Line on Bridges 74 

Loading and Unloading 

Material 370 

Loading Tools, Cars, Etc. 351 

Locating Joint Ties 6 

Location, of Anti-Creep- 
ers 11 

Of Hand Car and Tool 

Houses 349 

Of Signs 347 



Location — continued 
Of Whistling Posts and 

Signs 347 

Locomotives, Used in 

Bucking Snow 218 

Locust, Fence Posts 193 

Locks, Nut 74 

Long Leaf Yellow Pine 

Ties 50 

Loose Spikes . 61 

Low Joints 333 

Machines for Cutting 

Screw Spike Holes . . 53 
For Making Concrete 

Posts, Fig. 39 204 

Maintenance, Classified 

Rules for 366 

Cost of Unanchored 
Track and Track an- 
chored to prevent 

Creeping . 178 

List of Tools for 31 

Making Connections .... 14 
Marking Ties for Re- 
newal 106 

Marking Ties Inspected. 100 

Material Account 343 

Ordering 342 

Material for Track Laying 2 

Forwarding 16 

Loading and Unloading 370 
Mechanical Tamping .... 131 

Cost 132 

Mechanically operated 

Derails, Fig. 85 362 

Men, Handling 378 

Extra 340 

Working New Men .... 339 
Middle Ordinates in 
Inches for Curving 

Rails 235 

Miscellaneous Hints .... 276 

Monkey Wrenches 308 

Motor Cars 292 

Mountain Roads 246 



394 



INDEX 



Nails, Weight 190 

Narrow-Gage Track cross- 
ing Standard 285 

Narrow-Gage Track, 

Turnouts for 281 

Narrow Embankments . . 182 

Neat Stations 341 

New Men, Working 339 

New Rail, Laying 144 

New Ties, Distribution . . 92 

New Track, Lining 15 

Use of Gage 16 

Nut Locks 73, 74 

Offsets, Used to lay out a 

Curve 221 

Oiling Road Bed 116 

Old Track Lining 70 

Orders 353 

Ordering Tools or Mate- 
rials 342 

Ordinates for a 100 

chord, Table of 222 

Opening Ditches and Cul- 
verts 213 

Opening at the Joints, 

How to Remedy 183 

Pioneer Car 21 

Pipe Culverts 80 

Piling Ties 92 

Plates, Tie 51, 315 

Plow, To Put a Wrecked 
Gravel Plow back on 

Cars 326 

Plowing Snow 218 

Point leads, Table 264 

Pole Tie 88 

Pony Car 310 

Portable Snow Fence, 

Fig. 49 245 

Portable Rail Saw, Fig. 

82 353 

Posts, and Signs, Rein- 
forced Concrete .... 196 
Comparative Cost and 



Posts — continued 

Serviceability of 

Wood and Steel 

Fence Posts 191 

Cost and Life 193 

Cost of Concrete Fence 

Posts 202 

Details of Line and 
Corner Fence Posts 

and Braces 200 

Fastening Wire on 
Round Posts, Fig. 

42 208 

Fastening Wire on 
Grooved Posts, Fig. 

41 207 

For Marking Property 

Lines 199 

Method of Molding Re- 
inforced Concrete 

Fence Posts 202 

Location of Whistling 

Posts and Signs.... 347 
Reinforced Concrete . . 196 

Required Per Mile 189 

Wood, Life of 192 

Practical Hints for 

Trackmen 364 

Preparing Drifts 219 

Preserving Ties 49 

Printed Forms 343 

Property Line Posts.... 199 

Protect Fences 338 

Protecting Embankments 249 
Protection, against Fire. 354 

Of Men 213 

Protective Ditches 77 

Pulling on a Chain or 

Rope 327 

Q. & C. Sprinkling Car, 

Section and Plan ... 117 
Quarter Tie 88 

Radii, Ordinates and De- 
flections for a 100 
foot Chord 222 



INDEX 



395 



Rail Benders 233 

Rail Saw, Portable, Fig. 

82 353 

Rail, Anchors 9 

Anti-Creepers 165 

Benders 311 

Creeping 9 

Gang, Double Track- 
ing 34 

Held Vertical by Tie 

Plates 321 

Injured by Effects of 

Wave Motion 159 

Laying Under Heavy 

Traffic 149 

Laying Gang 144 

Life of 143 

Location of Anti- 
Creepers 11 

Machine for Handling. 17 
Means of Restricting 

Creeping 174 

Push 173 

Restricting Creeping . . 169 
Sections used on Steam 

Roads 147 

Sections 146 

Standard Sections for 

Steam Roads 153 

Standard Sections. 150, 151 
Scarcity of Rails for 

Repair 335 

Surface Bent 332 

Superior Reversible 

Bender, Fig. 46 234 

Vaughan Bender, Fig. 

45 233 

Wave Motion Cause of 

Creeping 168 

Rails, Allowance for Ex- 
pansion 146 

Battered 335 

Car for Carrying 15 

Closing up for Trains 

during Renewal .... 146 
Creeping 163 



Rails — continued 

Curving 231 

Cutting - 352 

Device for LTnloading 
from End Door Car. 28 

Rails, Emergency 339 

Expansion 145 

Expansion on Mountain 

Roads 246 

Gaging 145 

Laying 6 

Loading and Unloading 10 
Of Different Height... 338 

Renewal of 142 

Rate of Unloading. ... 19 

Surface Bent 332 

Scarcity of rails for 

Repair 335 

Table of Weight 147 

To be kept clear of Ice 244 
Table of Middle Ordi- 
nates in Inches for 

Curving 235 

Wear of 161 

Weight of 142 

Raising Track 134 

Ratchet, Bit 311 

Drills 311 

Rate of Unloading Rails. 19 

Record, Section 379 

Records of Renewals. . . . 106 
Red Cedar Fence Posts.. 192 
Reinforced Concrete Posts 

and Signs 196 

Reinforcement for Con- 
crete Posts, Fig. 40. 205 
Renewals, Saving in Ties 315 

Renewal of Rails 142 

Renewals of Ties 86 

Renewal Methods on Va- 
rious Roads 98 

Renewals, Order of 96 

Renewing Ties 94 

When Ballasting 98 

Repairing Track 70 

Repairing Bridges 74 



39G 



INDEX 



Repairs, Winter 209 

Scarcity of Rails for . . 335 

Replace Signals 346 

Reports 340 

Of Accidents 331 

Report Stock killed 354 

Reports, of Section Fore- 
man 344 

Report of Ties put in 

Track 105 

Of Ties taken out of 
Track 106 

Report of Ties taken out 
of Track, Boston and 
Albany form 108 

Report, Amount of Snow 211 

Respiking Ties 61 

Responsibility, Source of 359 
For inspection of Ties 
on Various Roads.. 101 

Restricting Creeping . . . 169 

Road Bed Section for Cut 
and Fill, B. & 0. R. 
R 127 

Road Bed Sections, Fig. 

23 139 

Road Bed, Injured by the 
Effects of Wave Mo- 
tion 159 

Road Crossing, Gates and 

Fences 369 

Rocks, Blasting Rocks 

that roll upon Track 248 

Rolling Resistance, Table 

of 173 

Rope used in pulling with 

Locomotive 327 

Rotary Plow and Flanger 244 

Rules 346, 347 

Classified, for Safety 
and Maintenance . . . 366 

Run off. Of Curve 240 

Safety, Classified Rules 

for 366 

First 364 



Sag, Method of Laying 

Rails in Sag 12 

Saturated Clay in Em- 
bankment 82 

Saw, Portable Rail Saw, 

Fig. 82 353 

Scaffolding 370 

Screens for Cleaning 

Stone Ballast 123 

Screening Ballast, Force 128 

Cost 129 

Screw Spikes, Conclusions 56 
Screw Spikes Holes, Cost 54 
Screw Spikes, Cost of 

Applying 54 

Holes for 52 

Screw Spikes 46, 52 

Experience in Use. ... 48 
Seasoned Ties, Cost of 

Treating 113 

Section Record 379 

Section Foreman's Re- 
ports 344 

Section of Rails 146 

Sections, Standard Rail 
Section for Steam 

Roads 153 

Section of Road Bed for 

Cut and Fill 127 

Sections of Rail used on 

Steam Roads 147 

Second Track, Cost of 

Laying by Machine . . 40 
Cost of Laying bv Hand 41 

Shims ....". ." 145 

Shimming Track 209 

Short Rails for Curves. . 12 

Shovels 302 

Various Types, Fig. 70 . 305 

Shoveling 303 

Side Tracks, Snow on 

Side Tracks 211 

Sign, Reinforced Con- 
crete 196 

Sign Posts, Details of 
Concrete Sign Posts, 
Fig. 37 198 



INDEX 



397 



Signs, Location of 347 

Signals, Disregard of 

Danger Signals .... 348 
Distance at which to 
act Danger Signals. 345 

Injured 347 

On Trains 346 

Sight Boards 312 

Slides, Land Slides on 

Mountain Roads . . . 248 
Sliding a Car on a Tie . . 326 
Snow Fences ..244, 214, 189 

Portable, Fig. 49 245 

Snow Walls 214 

Snow, Bucking 217 

Flanging Track 212 

In Cuts 212 

Opening Ditches and 

Culverts 213 

On Side Tracks 211 

Plowing 218 

Preparing Drifts 219 

Protection of Men 213 

Protection against 

Drifting 214 

Protection against, on 

Mountain Roads . . . 243 
Report on Amount. ... 211 

Special Equipment 369 

Special Rail Section to 
Prevent Creeping on 

Bridges 176 

Special Conditions on 

Mountain Roads . . . 242 

Species of Track Ties 87 

Specifications, Tie Plates 55 
Speed, Effect on Eleva- 
tion 227 

Speeders 293 

Speeder, Gasoline, Fig. 

69 298 

Speeder. Fig. 68 297 

Spike Pullers 312 

Hammers 301 

Spikes, Drawing 44 

Loose 61 



Spikes — continued 

No. per Mile 43 

Raised by Wave INlotion 

of Rail 160 

Screw Spikes 46 

Sizes 43 

Where to Drive 44 

Wear of 161 

Spiking 43 

Correct and Incorrect 

Method 45 

Comparative Cost of 

Cut and Screw 47 

Splices, Bent 341 

Spot Board 121 

Spotting Method of Dis- 
tributing New Ties. 92 

Spring Work 67 

Spurring- out Cars, Fig. 

53 260 

Staggered Switch Points 

on Any Curve 279 

Standard Frog, Fig. 56. 265 
Standard Fence, Fig. 35. 187 
Standard Rail Sections . . 

151, 150 

For Steam Roads..... 153 
Stations, To be Kept 

Neat 341 

Steel Car 15 

Steel Posts 194 

Stock killed to be Re- 
ported 354 

Straight Edge 4 

Strap Hangers 35 

Storms 69 

Striking Hammer 312 

Summer Track Work ... 86 

Surface Bent Rails 332 

Surface Ditches 81 

Superior Reversible Rail 

Bender, Fig. 46 234 

Switch, Sketch of, Fig. 

60 282 

Stands 338 

Timbers 270 



398 



INDEX 



Switches, Derailing 276 

And Frogs 255 

Care of Interlocking 

Switches 359 

Laying 260 

Three-throw 275 

Throwing 350 

Switch Ties, To cut 

Proper Length 274 

Tamping 275 

Switch Points, Staggered 

on any Curve 279 

Switch Leads 262 

Tamping, Ballast 130, 140 

Bars 306 

Broken Stone or Slag 

Ballast 141 

Burnt Clay Ballast... 140 
Chats Gravel or Chert 

Ballast 141 

Cinder Ballast 140 

Cost with Compressed 

Air 132 

Earth or Clay Ballast 140 

Mechanical 131 

Tamping, Proper Size of 
Face with Different 
Kinds of Ballast.. ..133 
Tools and Methods 
recommended by the 
American Railway 
Engineering Associa- 
tion 140 

Switch Ties 275 

Tape Line 306 

Telegraph Office Report. 349 

Telegraph Wires 332 

Temporary Turnouts 

without Frogs or 

Switches . 256 

Temperature, Extremes of 332 
Templet, For boring Ties 

for Tie Plates 64 

Template, Ditching 77 



Thawing Interlocking 

Connections 219 

Three-throw Switches . . . 275 

Throwing Switches 350 

Tidy Tool House 289 

Tie, Bedding 4 

Inspection 92 

Pole 88 

Quarter 88 

Renewals 96 

Slab 88 

Sections 89 

Sizes 91 

Uneven 88 

Tie Plates 51 

Specifications 55 

Tie Fiddlers 33 

Tie Spacers 33 

Tie Trams 22 

Tie Gage 6, 94, 95 

Tie, Annual Consumption 

shown by Chart. ... Ill 
Bill of Material of 

Switch Ties 271 

Boring by Hand 63 

Creosoting 62 

Chestnut 50 

Cost of Treating Sea- 
soned 113 

Comparative Cost of 
Treating Seasoned 
and Unseasoned .... 112 

Consumption 110 

Churning and Displac- 
ing Ballast 15J* 

Different Varieties at 

the Same Time 351 

Dimensions of 90 

Economy in Use of 

Treated 112 

Hard Wood 50 

Hewn 88 

In Highway Crossings 98 

Joint 6, 96 

Long Leaf Yellow Pine 50 
Life of 87 



INDEX 



399 



Tie — continued 

Methods of Preserving 49 
Method of Replacing in 
Single Track Tunnel, 

Fig. 50 253 

Ties, Piling 92 

Respiking 61 

Requirements of 54 

Records of Renewals. . lOG 

Renewals 86, 106 

Renewal Methods on 

Various Roads .... 98 
Responsibility for In- 
spection on Various 

Roads 101 

Renewing 94 

Renewing when Bal- 
lasting 98 

Remove Bark from,. . . 97 
Species of Wood Used. 87 

Size 87 

Sawn 88 

Treated, Use in Track 

Laying Machine ... 20 
Taken out of Track, 
Boston & Albany 
form of Reporting. . . 108 
Tamping Switch Ties . . 275 
To Cut Switch Ties 

Proper Length 274 

LTnseasoned, Cost of 

Treating 113 

Used without Plates.. 320 
Used as Temporary 

Snow Fence 216 

Wood Suitable for .... 54 

Tie Plates 315 

Gage 321 

Information required 

when Ordering .... 323 
Necessarv Features of 
a Good Tie Plate. . . 322 

Punching 322 

Rail held Vertical 321 

Surface of Ties 320 

Types of 317 



Tie Plates — continued 

Various Types, Fig. 77. 316 

Tightening Bolts 71 

Time Cards 346 

Time Books in Duplicate 342 

Time Keeping 342 

Timbers for Switch 270 

Tools, Adze 289 

Axe 289 

Cold Chisels 299 

Cross Cut Saws 299 

Claw Bars 299 

Drills, Standard Track 311 

Drawing Knives 309 

For Track Laying 2 

For Tamping 140 

Grindstone 309 

Hand Car 290 

Hand Axes 309 

Inspection and Use of. 370 

Jim Crow 311 

Lanterns 301 

Lining Bars 300 

Loaning 351 

Maintenance 31 

Monkey Wrenches 308 

Motor Cars 292 

Ordering 342 

Portable Rail Saw 353 

Pony Car 310 

Ratchet Drills 311 

Ratchet Bit 311 

Rail Benders and Jim 

Crow 311 

Shipping Track Tools . . 345 

Spike Pullers 312 

Sight Boards 312 

Striking Hammer .... 312 

Shovels 302 

Spike Hammers 301 

Track Jacks 309 

Track Wrenches 307 

Track Level 307 

Tape Lines 306 

Track Flags 306 

Tamping Bars 306 



400 



INDEX 



Tools — continued 

Track Gage 299 

Use and Care of 289 

Various Types of Shov- 
els, Fig. 70 305 

Weed Cutting 118 

Wooden Handles 313 

Tool House 289 

Tool Man. Double 

Tracking 36 

Tool Houses 349 

Torch for Thawing Inter- 
locking Connections. 219 

Track Inspection 362 

Track Material Account. 343 

Trespassers 338 

Train Accidents 337 

Treated Ties, Use in 
Tracklaying Ma- 
chine 20 

Trains, To be provided 
for during Ballast- 
ing 134 

Trams, System of 21 

Train, for Track laying 

Machine 21 

Track Gage 299 

Track Laying, Accommo- 
dations for 3 

Machine, Cost with. 20, 40 
Machine, Make up of 

Train 21 

Machine, General 

Track Conditions . . 26 
Machine, Organization 

of Gang 24 

Truck, To square a Car 

Truck 324 

Tunnels 251 

Tunnel, Replacing Ties in 

Tunnel, Fig. 50 253 

Turnout, Plan of, Fig. 

61 284 

Method of Placing 261 

Without Frog or 
"Points, Fig. 52 259 



Turnouts 255 

Bill of Material for 

Ties 271 

From Curves 277 

For Narrow-gage Track 
on Industrial Rail- 
way 281 

Temporary Turnouts 
without Frogs or 

Switches 256 

Typical Guard Rail, Fig. 

55 265 

Typical Ties in Plan and 

Section 89 

Uniform Tamping 130 

Uneven Ties 88 

Unloading and Loading 

Rails 10 

Unloading, Device for Un- 
loading Rails from 

End Door Car 28 

Unseasoned Ties. Cost 

of Treating 113 

Use and Care of Track 

Tools 289 

Washouts. On Mountain 

Roads 247 

Washouts 68 

Wave Motion. Cause of 

Creeping, Fig. 30. . . 168 
Effect of Track Move- 
ments 157 

Of Track under Wheel, 

Fig. 25 157 

Water Supply on Moun- 
tain Roads 246 

Water Passages 340 

Water Stations 337 

Weight of Rails, Table. . 147 

Weight of Steel Rails ... 142 

Weight of Fence Wire.. 190 

Weight of Nails 190 

Wet Cuts 79 

Wear of Rails 161 

Wear of Spikes 161 



INDEX 



401 



Weeds, Tools for Cutting 118 
Cleaning up in Fall. . 181 

Cutting 116 

Wheels, Effect on Curved 

Track 240 

White Oak Fence Posts. 193 
White Cedar Fence Posts 192 
Whistling Posts and 

Signs, Location .... 347 
Wire, Method of Fasten- 
ing on Round Posts, 

Fig. 42 208 

Method of Fastening on 
Grooved Posts, Fig. 

41 207 

Weight of Fence Wire.. 190 

Wires, Telegraph 332 

Winter Work 209 

Woods Suitable for Ties. 54 
Wood, Species used for 

Ties 87 



Wood — continued 

Fence Posts 192 

Wooden Handles 313 

Work, in Tunnels 251 

Work Train Service 358 

Working New Men 339 

Wrecked Engines 328 

Wrecking 324 

Cars off on Ties 325 

Wrecks 337 

Wrenches, Monkey 308 

Wrenches, Track 307 

Woven Wire Fences 191 

Yard Foremen 341 

Yards, Ballast for 352 

Tracks in Yard to be 
Level 135 

Yard Tracks, How Lev- 
elled 136 

Yellow Locust Fence 

Posts 193 



ENGINEERING AND TECHNICAL BOOKS 

The Clark Book Co., Inc., will be pleased to send you any of the 
following books or sets of books for ten days' examination, 

PREPAID AND WITHOUT OBLIGATION 

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COSTS AND EQUIPMENT 

Gillette's — "Cost Data" (All civil engineering) $ 5.00 

Gillette's — ."Handbook of Rock Excavation. Methods and 

Cost" 5.00 

Gillette's — "Handbook of Earth Excavation. Methods and 

Cost." Ready in June, 1917 5.00 

Dana's — "Handbook of Construction Plant" 5.00 

Gillette & Dana-^"Cost Keeping and Management Engineer- 
ing" 3.50 

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 

Kirkham^ — "Structural Engineering' ' 5.00 

Malcolm — "Graphic Statics' ' 3.00 

Steinman — "Melan's Steel Arches and Suspension Bridges" .. 3.00 

Tyrrell — ' 'Mill Buildings' ' 4.00 

Tyrrell — ' 'Artistic Bridge Design' ' 3.00 

Wells — ^" Steel Bridge Designing' ' 2.50 

BUILDING WORK 

Walker's — "Building Estimator's Reference Book" 10.00 

Gilbreth— "Field System' ' 3.00 

Gilbreth — ' 'Bricklaying System' ' 3.00 

CONCRETE 

Cochran — "Inspection of Concrete Construction" 4.00 

Dodge's — "Diagrams for the Design of Reinforced Concrete" 4.00 
Gillette & Hill — "Concrete Construction, Methods and Cost" 5.00 
Heidenreich's — "Engineer's Pocketbook of Reinforced Con- 
crete' ' 3.00 

Reid — "Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Construction" ... 5.00 
Reuterdahl — ^"Theory and Design of Reinforced Concrete 

Arches' ' 2.00" 

Taylor's — ' 'Practical Cement Testing' ' 3.00 

Tyrrell — ' 'Concrete Bridges and Culverts' ' 3.00 

RAILWAY WORK 

Lovell's — ' 'Practical Switchwork' ' 1.00 

Smith — "Maintenance of Way Standards" 1.50 

Smith — "Standard Turnouts" 1.00 

Kindelan's — "Trackman's Helper," revised by Dana and 

Trimble. Ready in Feb., 1917 2.00 

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MISCELLANEOUS 

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Parson's — "Land Drainage" 1.50 

Mayer's Telephone Construction 3.00 

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Cost Data, Construction Plant, Cost Keeping 12.00 

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Bridge Designing 12.00 

Inspection of Concrete, Gillette & Hill's Concrete Methods and 

Costs, Reid's Concrete Construction 12.00 

HANDBOOK OF COST DATA 

By Halbert P. Gillette, Consulting Engineer, Mem. Am. Soc. C. E., 

Am. Inst. Mech. Eng. 

Handbook binding, 4 % x 7 inches $5,00 

Eighteen hundred pages of costs, not prices. Almost every con- 
ceivable civil engineering operation, from cement sidewalks to rail- 
road systems, divided as follows : 

Subjects 

Principles of engineering economics; earth excavation; rock ex- 
cavation, quarrying and crushing; roads, pavements and walks; stone 
masonry; concrete and reinforced concrete construction; water 
works ; sewers ; timber work ; buildings ; railways, bridges and cul- 
verts ; steel and iron construction ; engineering and surveys ; mis- 
cellaneous cost data. 

The value of the book lies in the fact that the conditions sur- 
rounding each operation on which costs are reported are so com- 
pletely described that the costs may be accurately translated into 
terms of the same operation under other conditions. 

HANDBOOK OF ROCK EXCAVATION, METHODS AND COST 

By H. P. Gillette 

Handbook size and binding, illustrated $5.00 

Best modern practice in drilling and handling rock of all kinds, 
under all conditions, illustrating the latest machines and methods, 
with costs of actual work done. 840 pages. 

Chapters : I, Rocks and Their Properties ; II, Methods and Cost 
of Hand Drilling; III, Drill Bits, Shape, Sharpening and Temper- 
ing; IV, Machine Drills and Their Use; V, Cost of Machine Drilling; 
VI, Steam, Compressed Air and Other Power Plants; VII, Cable 
Drills, Well Drills, Augers and Cost Data; VIII, Core Drills; IX, 
Explosives; X, Charging and Firing; XI, Methods of Blasting; XII, 
Loading and 'Transporting Rock; XIII, Quarrying Dimension Stone; 
XIV, Open Cut Excavation in Quarries, Pits and Mines ; XV, Rail- 
road Rock Excavation and Boulder Blasting; XVI, Canal Excavation; 
XVII, Trench Work; XVIII, Sub-Aqueous Rock Excavation. 

HANDBOOK OF EARTH EXCAVATION, METHODS AND COST 
By Halbert P. Gillette 

Ready June, 1917 

Handbook size and binding, over 800 pages, illustrated $5.00 

A complete history and encyclopedia in modern earth moving meth- 
ods, with detailed costs for the different methods and equipment 
used. 

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Chapters: Properties of Earth, Measurement and Classification, 
Boring and Sounding, Clearing and Grubbing, Loosening and Shovel- 
ing, Wheelbarrows, Carts, Wagons, etc.. Scrapers and Graders, Cars, 
Steam Shovel Work, Bucket Excavation, Cableways and Conveyors, 
Trenching by Hand, by Machinery, Ditches and Canals, Embank- 
ments, Earth Dams and Levees, Dredging, Hydraulic Excavation, 
Miscellaneous. 

HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION PLANT 
By Richard T. Dana, Consulting Engineer, Mem. Am. Soc. C. E., 
Mem. A. I. M. E., Mem. Am. Soc. Eng. Contr., Mem. Gillette & 
Dana, Appraisal Engineers 

4% X 7, Flexible Leather, 700 pages $5.00 

Engineering Record; "Much valuable data are given as to the 
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The American City: ''Mr. Dana's volume gives the information 
most necessary to engineers in making estimates of construction 
costs and in executing plans." 

The Excavating Engineer: "Undoubtedly the most complete hand- 
book of construction plant ever published. Every conceivable type 
of machinery and equipment." 

Concrete Cement Age: "The descriptions include practically 
every type of equipment, as well as cost data." 

"Railway Review: "... presenting between two covers that 
which the engineer often searches through masses of trade catalogues 
and stacks of card index files to find." 

The National Builder: "Many machines, appliances, methods and 
contrivances the ordinary contractor knows but little about are here 
fully described and illustrated." 

COST KEEPING AND MANAGEMENT ENGINEERING 

By H. P. Gillette, Consulting Engineer, Mem. Am. Soc. C. E., Am. 
Soc. M. E., and Richard T. Dana, Consulting Engineer, Mem. 
Am. Soc. C. E., Am. Inst. M. E., Am. Soc. Eng. Contr., Mem. 
Gillette & Dana, Appraisal Engineers 

Cloth, 6x9 inches. 350 pages $3.50 

This work is to the construction engineer what Taylor's "Shop 
Management" and ''Principles of Scientific Management" are to 
the shop foreman and superintendent. 

Complete Chapter Headings 
I, The Ten Laws of Management; II, Rules for Securing Mini- 
mum Cost; III, Piece Rate, Bonus and Other Systems of Payment; 
IV, Measuring the Output of Workmen; V, Cost Keeping; VI, Office 
Appliances and Methods ; VII, Bookkeeping for Small Contractors ; 
VIII, Miscellaneous Cost Report Blanks and Systems of Cost Keeping. 

SURVEYORS' HANDBOOK 
By T. U. Taylor 

Leather, 328 pages, illustrated $2.00 

Describes the instruments, their care and adjustment, and the 
methods practiced in making surveys of all kinds. Extensive tables 
are given to facilitate calculations. 

Chapter Headings 

Chain Surveying; Compass Surveying; Transit Survey; Calcula- 
tion of Areas; Division of Land; Leveling; Topographic Survey; 
Railroad Survey; Earthwork; City Surveying: Plotting and Letter- 
ing; Government Surveying; Trigonometric Formulas; Tables, etc., 
etc. 

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STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 
By J. E. Kirkham, Prof. Civil Engineering, Iowa State College, Con- 
sulting Bridge Engineer, Iowa Highway Commission. Formerly 
Designing Engineer with American Bridge Co. 

Cloth, 6x9, 675 pages, 452 illustrations, 3 plates $5.00 

Nothing but elementary mathematics is presupposed. As the au- 
thor says in his preface, the book was designed to be understood 
without the aid of a library of reference works. 

There are fourteen chapters as follows : I, Preliminary ; II, 
Structural Drafting; III, Fundamental Elements; IV, Theoretical 
Treatment of Beams ; V, Theoretical Treatment of Columns ; VI, 
Rivets, Pins, Rollers and Shafting; VII, Maximum Reactions; VIII, 
Graphic Statics; IX, Influence Lines; X, Descriptions of I-Beams 
and Plate Girders; XI, Design of Simple Railway Bridges; XII, De- 
sign of Simple Highway Bridges; XIII, Skew Bridges; XIV, Design 
of Buildings. 

MELAN'S THEORY OF ARCHES AND SUSPENSION BRIDGES 
Translated by D. B. Steinman, C. E. Ph.D., Prof, of Civil Engineer- 
ing, Univ. Idaho, author of "Suspension Bridges and Cantilevers" 

Cloth, 6x9, 310 pages, 120 illustrations $3.00 

This is a complete, authorized translation of Professor Melan's 
masterpiece on the theory of arches. 

Contents 

The Flexible Arch and the Unstiffened Cable; The Stiffened Sus- 
pension Bridge; The Arched Rib (the Three Hinged Arch, Arched 
Rib with End Hinges, Arched Rib without Hinges, The Cantilever 
Arch, the Continuous Arch) ; Arch and Suspension Systems with 
Braced Web ; Combined Systems ; Appendix — The Elastic Theory 
Applied to Masonry and Concrete Arches, Temperature Variation in 
Steel and Masonry Bridges. 

DIAGRAMS FOR THE DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 

STRUCTURES 

By G. F. Dodge 

Cloth, 151/2x121/^, 112 pages, 43 diagrams $4.00 

Founded on diagrams prepared by the author for his own use 
when employed as a designing engineer for a reinforcing company. 
No experience in mathematics required by those who do their de- 
signing from this book. 

MILL BUILDINGS 
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 
With Chapters comparing the costs of steel, wood and concrete build- 
ings, and on exporting steel buildings 
By Henry Grattan Tyrrell, C. E., author of Mill Building Construc- 
tion, Concrete Bridges and Culverts, History of Bridge En- 
gineering, Artistic Bridge Design, etc. 
Cloth, 6x9, 490 pages, 652 illustrations, with chapter com- 
paring wood, steel and concrete buildings $4.00 

Chapter Headings 

General Features and Requirements of Economic Design; Location 
and Site; Purpose and Arrangement; Number of Stories; Walls; 
Cost of Steel Buildings; Comparative Cost of Wood, Steel and Con- 
crete Buildings; Roof Covering and Drainage; Lighting and Ventilat- 
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and Miscellaneous Loads; Steel Framing; Wood Framing; Concrete 

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Wood, Composition Roofing; Corrugated Iron; Sheet Metal Roofing; 
Cornices, Gutters and Downspouts ; Ventilators, Glass, Skylights, 
Windows ; Monitor Windows, Doors ; Factory Foot Bridges ; Paint, 
Painting; Painting Specifications for Structural Steel Work; En- 
gineering Department; Estimating the Quantities; Estimating the 
Costs; Approximate Estimating Prices; The Drafting Office; Organiza- 
tion of Drafting Office; Drafting Office Practice; Cost of Structural 
Work Shop Drawings; Directions for Exporting Steel Buildings. 

ARTISTIC BRIDGE DESIGN 
By Henry Grattan Tyrrel, C. E., author of Mill Building Construc- 
tion, Concrete Bridges and Culverts, History of Bridge En- 
gineering, and Mill Buildings. 

Cloth, 614x91^, 290 pages, illustrated $3.00 

Designed to help the engineer or architect to combine beauty, 
utility and economy in his work. 

The work is divided as follows: Principles of Design; Ordinary 
Steel Structures ; Cantilever Bridges ; Metal Arches ; Suspension 
Bridges; Masonry Bridges; Illustrations and Descriptions. 

These last are taken from representative structures all over the 
world, covering the general classes mentioned above and alone justify 
the book. 

FIELD SYSTEM 
By Frank B. Gilbreth 

Handbook size and binding, 200 pages $3.00 

Mr. Gilbreth made the "Cost-plus-a-fixed-sum" contract famous. 
This ''Field System" is the book of instructions issued to all his 
foremen, superintendents ; time and material clerks, accounting de- 
partments, etc. Valuable rules for running a job. 

STEEL BRIDGE DESIGNING 
By Melville B. Wells, C. E., Assoc. Prof. Bridge & Struc. Eng., Ar- 
mour Inst. Technology 
Cloth, 6x9 inches, 250 pages, 47 illustrations, 27 folding plates $2.50 
Chapter Headings 
Engineers' Work and Contracts, Bridge Manufacture; Rivets; the 
Design of a Roof Truss; Types and Details of Highway Bridges; De- 
sign of a Riveted Truss Highway Bridge; Types and Details of 
Railway Bridges; Design of a Plate Girder Railroad Bridge; Design 
of a Riveted Truss Railroad Bridge; A Pin Connected Bridge; Shop 
Drawings ; Strength of Materials ; Bibliography ; Specifications. 

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, METHODS AND COST 
By H. P. Gillette, Consulting Engineer, and Charles S. Hill, Associ- 
ate Editor of Engineering and Contracting 
6V2 X 91/4, cloth, 690 pages $5.00 

Devoted to the economics of concrete for the builder of concrete 
structures. The authors are constantly in touch with the best and 
cheapest methods of concrete construction; Mr. Gillette, through his 
field work, and Mr. Hill, as editor of Engineering and Contracting. 

CHAPTERS: — Methods and Cost of Selecting and Preparing Ma- 
terials for Concrete; Theory and Practice of Proportioning Concrete; 
Making and Placing Concrete by Hand; Making and Placing Concrete 
by Machine; Depositing Concrete Under Water and of Subaqueous 

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Grouting; Making and Using Rubble and Asphaltic Concrete; Laying 
Concrete in Freezing Weather; Finishing Concrete Surfaces; Form 
Construction; Concrete Pile and Pier Construction; Heavy Concrete 
Work in Fortifications, Locks, Dams, Breakwaters and Piers; Con- 
structing Bridge Piers and Abutments; Constructing Retaining Walls; 
Constructing Concrete Foundations for Pavement; Constructing Side- 
walks, Pavements, Curbs and Gutters; Lining Tunnels and Subways; 
Constructing Arch and Girder Bridges ; Culvert Construction ; Re- 
inforced Concrete Building Construction; Building Construction of 
Separately Molded Members; Aqueduct and Sewer Construction; Con- 
structing Reservoirs and Tanks; Constructing Ornamental Work; 
Miscellaneous Methods and Costs; Waterproofing Concrete Structures. 

ENGINEERS' POCKETBOOK OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 
By E. Lee Heidenreich, Mem. Am. Soc. Test. Materials; M. W. S. E.; 

Mem. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. 
Flexible leather, 374 pages, 4i^x6% inches, 80 tables, illus- 
trated $3.00 

Chapter Headings 

Materials and Machines Used in Concrete Construction; Design and 
Construction of Buildings; Design and Construction of Bridges; 
Abutments and Retaining Walls; Culverts, Conduits, Sewers, Pipes 
and Dams; Tanks, Reservoirs, Bins and Grain Elevators ; Chimneys, 
Miscellaneous Data. 

BRICKLAYING SYSTEM 
By Frank B. Gilbreth, Mem. Am. Soc. M. E. 

Cloth, 6x9 inches, 330 pages, 167 illustrations, 73 bond charts $3.00 
This book was written by one of the largest general contractors 
in New York, for his own foremen and superintendents, but is vastly 
more than a mere rule book. 

Chapter Headings 

Training Apprentices; Methods of Management; Methods of Con- 
struction; Routing of Material; Scaffold, the Gilbreth Scaffold, Hod 
Type; the Gilbreth Scaffold, Packet Type; the Gilbreth Packet 
System; Method of Building Tall Chimneys; Mortar; Bricks; Brick- 
layers' Tools, etc.; Lines, Plumbs and Poles; Motion Study; Methods 
of Laying Brick Under Special Conditions; Finishing, Jointing and 
Pointing; Arches and Chimney Breasts; Tearing Down, Cutting Out 
and Patching Brickwork; Bond. 

INSPECTION OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 
By Jerome Cochran 

Cloth, 6x9, 595 pages, illustrated $4.00 

Covers over 200 different special subjects under concrete, elab- 
orately indexed for quick reference. An encyclopedia for the in- 
spector, engineer, superintendent or foreman on concrete work. 

Chapter Headings 

Inspection of Hydraulic Cement; Inspection of Sand, Stone, etc.; 
Inspection of Proportioning and Mixing; Inspection of Forms, Molds, 
Centering, etc.; Inspection of Steel Reinforcement; Inspection of 
Concreting; Inspection of Surface Finishes; Inspection of Water- 
proofing; Inspection of Sidewalks, Curbs and Pavements; Inspection 
of Ornamental Work, Blocks, etc. ; Inspection of Molding and Driv- 
ing Concrete Piles; Definition of Terms, List of Authorities, Index. 

CLARK BOOK CO., INC., 27 William Street, New York City 

407 



CONCRETE AND REINFORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 

By Homer A. Reid, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E. Asst. Eng., Bureau of 

Bldgs., N. Y. 

Cloth, 6x9 inches, 906 pages, 70 tables, 715 illustrations .,.$5.00 
A book of almost a thousand pages on concrete design and con- 
struction. 

Contents 

Historical Use and Development of Cement and Concrete; Classi- 
fication and Manufacture of Cement; Properties of Cement and Meth- 
ods of Testing; Sand, Broken Stone, and Gravel; Proportioning 
Concrete; Mixing Concrete; Placing Concrete; Cost of Concrete; 
Finishing Concrete Surfaces ; General Physical Properties ; The Gen- 
eral Elastic Properties of Concrete; Physical Properties of Rein- 
forcing Metals; Principles and Disposition of Reinforcement; Me- 
chanical Bond; Styles of Slab Reinforcement; Styles of Beam Re- 
inforcement; Curved Pieces Strained in Flexure; Columns, Walls 
and Pipes ; General Phenomena of Flexure ; Theory of Beams ; Vari- 
ous Beam Theories; Theory of Columns; Foundations; General Build- 
ing Construction; Practical Construction; Retaining Walls; Dams; 
Conduits and Sewers; Tank and Reservoir Construction; Chimneys, 
Tunnels, Subways, Railroad Ties, Fence Posts, Piers and Wharves; 
Concrete in Bridge Construction; Arch Bridge Centers and Methods 
of Construction; Bridge Floors; Bridges, Piers and Abutments; Con- 
crete Building Blocks. 

THEORY AND DESIGN OF CONCRETE ARCHES 

By Arvid ReuterdaW 

Cloth, 6x9, 132 pages $2.00 

Every principle of concrete arch design is explained thoroughly — 
there are no missing steps in the mathematics. 

Engineering News says: "For the student who wishes to get in 
one book the whole theory, to its minutest details, of the reinforced 
concrete arch, and who is not over-awed by a succession of formula- 
filled pages, we can commend this book. For any beginner in the 
designs of such bridges, the latter part will prove most useful." 

PRACTICAL CEMENT TESTING 
By W. Purves Taylor 

Cloth, 6x9 inches, 330 pages, 58 tables, 142 illustrations ....$3.00 
Adopted by University of Pennsylvania and other technical schools. 
Especially valuable in the instructions on interpreting results of 
tests. 

Contents 
Classification and Statistics, Composition and Constitution; Manu- 
facture, Inspection and Sampling; The Testing of Cement; Specific 
Gravity; Fineness, Time of Setting; Tensile Strength; Soundness; 
Chemical Analysis; Special Tests; Approximate Tests; Practical Op- 
eration; Other Varieties of Cement; Specifications; Appendices Giv- 
ing A. S. C. E., N. Y. Section, Society for Chemical Industry, 
■A. S. T. M., U. S. Army, British and Canadian Methods of Testing 
and Specifications. 

CIVIL ENGINEERS' POCKET BOOK 
By Albert I. Frye 

Handbook size, leather, 1600 pages, illustrated $5.00 

This is the encyclopedia of civil engineering, as may be seen from 
the table of contents : 

Mathematics; Mechanics; Stresses in Structures; Materials; Ex- 
plosives; Preservatives; Lumber and Lumbering; Building Stones and 

CLARK BOOK CO., INC., 27 William Street, New York City 

408 



Cements ; Quarrying ; Stone Cutting Masonry ; Stereotomy ; Weights 
of Materials; Strengtli of Materials; Properties of Plane Surfaces; 
Properties and Tables of Steel Shapes; Beams and Girders; Columns; 
Structural Details; Metal Gages; Cordage; Wire and Cables; Pipes 
and Tubes; Railway Bridges; Electric Railway Bridges; Highway 
Bridges ; Cantilever Bridges ; Movable Bridges ; Suspension Bridges ; 
Arches; Trestles; Roofs; Buildings; Retaining Walls; Dams; Founda- 
tions; Wharves, Piers and Docks; Breakwaters; Jetties; Earthwork; 
Rock Excavations; Dredging; Tunneling; Surveying; Mapping and 
Leveling; Railroads; Highways; Hydrostatics; Hydraulics; Water 
Supply ; Water Works ; Sanitation ; Irrigation ; Waterways ; Water 
Power; Steam and Gas Power; Electric Power and Lighting; Mis- 
cellaneous Data and Illustrations, all completely indexed, a total 
of 1600 pages. 

CONCRETE BRIDGES AND CULVERTS 

By Henry Grattan Tyrrell, C. E. 

Flexible leather, 4^^ x 6% (handbook size), 272 pages ....$3.00 
A handbook on the design and construction of concrete bridges, 
in which the simplest and easiest formulae have been used, and only 
those actually necessary in the design of these structures. 

Contents 
Plain Concrete Arch Bridges; Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridges; 
Highway Beam Bridges; Concrete Culverts and Trestles. 

MILITARY PREPAREDNESS AND THE ENGINEER 
By Capt. E. F. Robinson, Corps of Engineers, N. G. N. Y. 

Handbook size and binding, 224 pages, illustrated $1.50 

Chapters 

How to Obtain Military Training; The National Guard; Military 
Action; Field Fortifications; Obstacles; Siege Works; Demolitions; 
Organization; Administration; Engineer Troops in the Field; Fire 
Military Bridges; Topographical Sketching; Needs of the Engineers 
in War ; Bibliography ; Reading Matter for Civilian Engineers ; Prop- 
erty Carried by a Company of Engineers in the Field. 

BACKBONE OF PERSPECTIVE 
By T. U. Taylor 

Cloth, 41/^x7 inches, 56 pages, illustrated $1.00 

Chapter Headings 
Primary Methods; Vanishing Point Method; Axometric Projections; 
Shades and Shadows. 

LAW OF CONTRACT 
By Alexander Haring 

Cloth, 6x9, 510 pages $4.00 

Engineers and contractors, with the guidance of this book, may 

save themselves disastrous losses by litigation or legal fees. 

The rules of law in each chapter are illustrated by cases from 

practice, and opinions from cases of engineering litigations. The 

chapters are: The Contract; Its Inherent Elements; Its Formation; 

Parties Affected ; Its Interpretation ; Its Discharge, 

CLARK BOOK CO., INC., 27 WiUiam Street, New York City 

409 



GRAPHIC STATICS 

By Charles W. Malcolm, C. E., Asst. Prof. Structural Engineering, 
University of 111.; Assoc. Mem. Am. Soc. C. E., and Soc. for 
Promotion of Engineering Education 

Cloth, 6x9 inches, 330 pages, 155 drawings $3.00 

A book for the designer and draughtsman, any one in structural 
work, in fact, who desires a knowledge of the principles back of 
structural design. 

The four parts of the text are: 
I, General Principles; II, Framed Structures, Roof Trusses; III, 
Beams; IV, Bridges. 

LAND DRAINAGE 

By J. L. Parsons, Assoc. Mem. W. S. E. 

Cloth, 6x9, 195 pages, 32 figures $1.50 

Contents 

Preliminary Drainage Surveys; The Design of Tile Drains; Tile 
Drain Outlet Walls and Inlets; Design and Maintenance of Open 
Drains; Plans, Reports and Records; The Estimate of Costs of 
Drainage Systems ; The Preparation and Enforcement of Drainage 
Specifications; The Division of Costs of Drainage Systems; The Qual- 
ity and Inspection of Drain Tile. 

Twenty-two tables and 36 illustrations. 

TRANSLUCENT CROSS SECTION PAPER, THAT CAN BE BLUE 
PRINTED 

Something every engineer, architect, contractor and business of- 
ficial should have for plotting curves and charts and for keeping 
daily, weekly or monthly records of performance, income, expenses, 
etc. 

This paper is put up in pads of 100 sheets each, size over-all, 
81/4 X 11 inches, so that it may be filed with standard correspondence. 

There is a binding edge which may be punched to fit any of the 
standard loose-leaf binders. This makes it especially handy where 
it is desired to keep all records together for easy reference. 

The ruling is in green, with heavier division lines at the quarters, 
halves and inches. And it can be blue printed. Good prints may 
be made from either ink or pencil drawings and also from type- 
writing, especially if a piece of carbon paper is placed over the back 
of the translucent sheet so that an extra heavy imprint is made. 

We have this paper in 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 16 and 20 divisions to 
the inch, also logarithmic and semi-logarithmic rulings. 

The price of each kind is $1.00 per pad of 100 sheets each or 
$10.00 per dozen pads. 

If you try it once you will never be without it. Include an order 
for a trial pad when you send us your order for books. 



Send for a copy of our Catalogue of 182 Indispensable Engineering 
Books, selected with the aid of practical engineers of note all over 
the United States, to 800 of whom we sent letters requesting that 
they specify what books they considered indispensable, regardless 
of who were the publishers. A request on a post-card signed with 
your name will bring it. 

CLARK BOOK CO., INC., 27 William Street, New York City 
410 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: April 2004 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATrON 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724)779-2111 



